James’s Tale

~ Darren Phaneuf ~ 3 Comments

James Tankard’s grave in County Home Cemetery, Beekmantown, NY

Source: Find A Grave

In the County Home Cemetery in Beekmantown, New York, a simple grave marks the life of James Tankard, recording only the barest facts: a name, a date of death, an age…a life reduced to its beginning and end.1 The cemetery serves as the burial ground for those who died in the Clinton County Poorhouse—a final resting place for people who ended their lives dependent on public charity, without family or resources to secure a private burial. That James’s story concludes in the County Home Cemetery, however, obscures the life he actually lived. A closer examination of his life reveals both the possibilities and the constraints faced by Black citizens in nineteenth-century upstate New York.2 Through James’s experiences, we can glimpse how small rural communities navigated race, obligation, and care for their most vulnerable members before the rise of modern social welfare systems.

To fully understand James’s life, one must first understand why a Black community existed in northern New York at all. The community into which James Tankard was born developed out of the earliest patterns of Black settlement in Clinton County, patterns shaped by slavery, gradual emancipation, and the labor needs of northern New York in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. One of the earliest documented concentrations of free Black residents can be traced to the estate of Thomas Tredwell, a Princeton-educated lawyer and former member of the Continental Congress who relocated from Smithtown, Long Island, to the area in 1793.3 Tredwell emancipated many of the enslaved people that joined him on the relocation to Clinton County, and they settled upon a tract of elevated land that became known locally as “Richland” initially and later “Bear Town” or “Little Africa”4. The first few decades of the 1800s saw a growing population of free Black adults and children as Richland became an anchor point for attracting Black residents to northern New York. These settlements remained small, vulnerable, and closely tied to local labor markets, yet they provided the social world into which families like the Tankards were born and from which they would later struggle to remain.

James Tankard was born in March 1833 in Plattsburgh, New York, into a family already established within the region’s small but significant free Black community.5 His father, George Tankard, had moved to the area from Dorset, Vermont.6 George married Isabel Soper, and he first appears in New York records in 1819, when he presented his certificate of freedom to Plattsburgh town officials—one of several bureaucratic requirements imposed on Black men seeking to exercise the franchise. Although New York had begun gradual emancipation in 1799 and achieved full emancipation on July 4, 1827, freedom did not translate into equality. Black men faced property requirements for voting that few could meet, and daily life was shaped by newspaper denunciations, condemnation of interracial marriage, and segregation even in churches. His brother Martin obtained the same certification in 1821.7 This seemingly routine administrative act, preserved in town meeting minutes, speaks volumes about the Tankard family’s determination to assert their citizenship and belonging in a community that imposed both formal and informal barriers to Black participation.

The 1820 census recorded George Tankard, then a young man, living in Plattsburgh with two other free people of color—almost certainly his wife Isabel and their first child. Because the Plattsburgh census was arranged alphabetically rather than geographically, reconstructing neighborhood proximity is difficult. Nevertheless, the household was listed as engaged in agriculture, suggesting that George worked the land in some capacity, likely as a hired laborer or tenant farmer.8 Among the six other Black nuclear families recorded in Plattsburgh in 1820 was one headed by Sampson Soper.9 Although documentary evidence remains limited, Sampson was likely related to James’s mother Isabel—quite possibly her father—pointing to the existence of extended kin networks among the town’s small free Black population.

By 1830, George Tankard’s household had grown to six people. The census lists George and Isabel, three young children—two boys and a girl under the age of ten—and an older woman who was likely an extended family member.10 Although the number of Black nuclear families in the town had declined from seven to four over the previous decade, all four remaining households had been residents for more than ten years, suggesting continuity rather than instability. Of the 800 families listed in the 1830 census for the town, the household headed by Sampson Soper appears just eight houses away from George Tankard’s growing family—a small but telling reminder of the proximity and persistence of these early Black kin and community networks.11

The Tankard family in 1840

Source: 1840 US census, Clinton County, New York, population schedule, Beekmantown Township.

James’s early childhood unfolded amid a quiet but consequential shift in place. Sometime in the 1830s, the Tankard family left Plattsburgh and resettled just a few miles north in Beekmantown, moving into the orbit of the Black settlement that had taken shape around Richland. When the census taker arrived in 1840, James was about seven years old, and George Tankard headed a household of five, working in agriculture.12

The move placed the Tankards within a small, concentrated Black neighborhood. Of the fourteen Black residents recorded in Beekmantown that year, all but one lived in close proximity to the Tankard household. James grew up alongside the four-member families headed by Azel Soper and Elisha Billings.13 Azel—likely Isabel’s brother—had made the same move from Plattsburgh at roughly the same time, suggesting a kin-based migration into a space already shaped by earlier Black settlement.

In a town that was otherwise almost entirely white, James’s childhood unfolded in daily contact with people who shared his family’s history and status. That proximity was not accidental. The Tankards’ move placed James within one of several established geographies of Black settlement in northern Clinton County, mirrored in nearby towns such as Redford, Altona, and Chazy. The settlement in Redford, for example, was anchored by the work of James’s uncle Martin Tankard, a noted melt master at the Redford Glass Company whose labor sustained both family and community.14

These neighborhoods offered Black families spaces of relative autonomy from white scrutiny, often on the outskirts of towns where physical isolation—and the dangers of the surrounding woods—was exchanged for a measure of safety and self-determination. The clustered households surrounding James offered more than convenience; they provided continuity, mutual recognition, and a sense of belonging that was rare for Black children growing up in rural northern communities, buffering—though never eliminating—the insecurity of life in a society that tolerated Black presence without fully accepting it.

Even as sentiment in Beekmantown began to shift in modest ways—reflected in an 1846 town vote supporting equal voting rights for Black citizens—the daily reality remained one of separation and constrained opportunity.15 Expressions of principle did not dismantle the social boundaries that shaped where Black families lived, worked, or belonged. For the Tankards, the 1840s appear to have been a period of quiet transition, as the neighborhood networks that had defined James’s childhood began to thin, leaving family rather than community as the most consistent source of stability.

The Tankard family in 1850

Source: 1850 US census, Clinton County, New York, population schedule, Beekmantown Township.

The 1850 census provides our first direct glimpse of James Tankard as an individual. At seventeen, he lived with his parents, George (now fifty-eight) and Isabel (sixty-two), along with several siblings, including William (twenty-three), Isabel Jr. (twenty-one), and the youngest, Thomas (six). James worked as simply a laborer. Both he and Thomas had attended school in the last year.16 Repeated newspaper notices over more than two decades indicate that Isabelle Tankard regularly received letters at the Plattsburgh post office—evidence not only of functional literacy, but of sustained correspondence that connected the family to people beyond their immediate community.17 Despite that evidence, James is noted as unable to read and write for much of his life. Unlike earlier censuses, the 1850 enumeration places the Tankard household without other Black families immediately nearby, a shift that reflects changing patterns of residence within the town.

Because the 1850 census recorded every resident by name, it provides the first opportunity to examine the full spatial world occupied by Black residents of Beekmantown. That world was a constrained one. Six people of color were incarcerated in the state prison that would eventually become part of the distinct town of Dannemora. Another Black resident lived in the town poorhouse. The census thus locates a significant portion of Beekmantown’s Black population within systems of confinement or dependency rather than independent household formation.

Outside of these institutions, a small number of Black families resided independently within the town. It is among these households that the Tankards’ position can best be understood. Among the free Black families living outside institutional care were a few that had achieved modest stability, often through skilled labor and limited property ownership. Azel Soper, the relative who had lived alongside the Tankards in 1840, remained in Beekmantown in 1850. He supported a family of five as a joiner and held real estate valued at $200. His teenage son worked as a laborer, and both he and his younger brother attended school—mirroring the educational efforts evident within the Tankard household and underscoring the role of stability in sustaining schooling.18 George Nutt headed another Black nuclear family and, like Soper, owned real estate, though valued more highly at $400.19 Nutt was the only Black resident of Beekmantown listed as a farmer and the only one whose household appeared on the 1859 town map, a rare visibility that underscores both his relative standing and the exceptionality of such recognition for Black residents.20 Together, Soper and Nutt represent the upper bound of economic security available to Black families in Beekmantown—achieved through skilled labor, property ownership, and careful navigation of a racially restrictive economy.

Other Black households occupied far more precarious positions, revealing how thin the line was between independence and dependency. Eighty-year-old Jacob Oakley and his son Francis occupied one house. Jacob himself was still listed as a laborer, underscoring how necessity—not longevity or security—dictated continued work even into old age. Nearby lived eighty-year-old Jenny York, whose household included Selinda Billings and her eleven-year-old son Charles, who attended school during the previous year. Both the Oakley (in 1820) and York (in 1830) surnames were previously found in Beekmantown census. York and Billings were listed as paupers in 1850—an important distinction.21 Of the three town residents receiving poor relief outside the poorhouse in 1850, two were Black women. The fact that two of the three town residents receiving poor relief outside the poorhouse were Black women underscores just how narrow the margin was between independence and dependency for African Americans in mid-century Beekmantown.

James’s return to Plattsburgh by 1860 marked another reconfiguration of his household and family ties. Now twenty-seven and still working as a laborer, he resided with only his mother, Isabel, who at seventy-eight had outlived James’s father. Two siblings were no longer present—Isabel likely having established a household of her own, while the fate of the youngest, Thomas, remains unclear.22 James and his mother shared their dwelling with twenty-two-year-old Theodore Winchell, a Black man also employed as a hired laborer. This arrangement reflected the fluidity and enduring connections among Black families in the region: in 1850, Winchell had lived in a household with James’s sister, Jane. A decade later, he was married and living with his twenty-year-old wife, Martha, who was listed as white.23

Yet family proximity had not vanished entirely. The household listed immediately next to James’s belonged to his brother William, placing the two men side-by-side once more. William headed a growing family, living with his wife, Eliza, twenty-four, and their four young children—James, George, Mary, and Isabel. Like his brother, William supported his household through day labor. Echoing a pattern seen in several marriages forming around James, Eliza was white.24

Despite James’s return—and that of some family members—to Plattsburgh, connections to Beekmantown remained strong. His mother’s relative Azel Soper, once a skilled joiner and property holder, continued to reside there, though by 1860 he was listed simply as a laborer with no real estate, working alongside his eighty-one-year-old father, John.25 Among the Black families newly recorded in Beekmantown was the household of James Kelly and his wife, Jane. Supporting four young children, all under the age of seven, Kelly, like many others, relied on day labor.26 The Kelly household carried particular significance for James: Jane was his eldest sister, extending the Tankards’ kinship network and reinforcing their enduring presence in the town.

Taken together, these households reveal a pattern of geographic mobility and endurance. Black families in Beekmantown during the 1850s largely managed to remain—intact and often still neighboring one another—yet were increasingly vulnerable to forces that would soon unravel both household and community life.

James Tankard’s substitute enlistment

Source: Compiled Service Records of Volunteer Union Soldiers Who Served With the United States Colored Troops

When President Lincoln authorized the enlistment of Black soldiers in 1863, James was in his early thirties, and working as a laborer. This would usher in the most consequential chapter of his life. That decision by Lincoln marked a turning point in the life of James. On July 14, 1863, he enlisted in Company H of the 8th United States Colored Infantry. His enlistment record captures him with precision: five feet eleven and a half inches tall, with black complexion, eyes, and hair, born in New York, and listing his occupation as “farmer.”27 Notably, James enlisted as a substitute, a legal arrangement under the federal draft system by which a drafted man paid another to serve in his place. In the case of James, he volunteered to fight on behalf of John Rooney.28 John was the son of William Rooney, a farmer with real estate valued at $6,000 in 1860 who had been listed a few houses away from Azel Soper on the 1850 census. Within days of being listed among men drafted in Beekmantown in July 1863, James had agreed to serve on Rooney’s behalf.29 For men like James, substitution offered wages and a bounty far beyond what agricultural labor could provide, even as it placed them in heightened danger. For Black men in particular, military service also offered the promise of recognition and citizenship in a nation that had long denied both. It was an opportunity forged from inequality and risk—a bargain many accepted because few alternatives existed.

While James enlisted on July 14, 1863, it would be months before he joined his regiment. The 8th United States Colored Troops, organized at Camp William Penn in Pennsylvania during the fall of 1863, was among the earliest regiments of Black soldiers formed after the Emancipation Proclamation.30 Composed largely of men who had labored as farmhands, laborers, and tradesmen, the regiment trained under white officers but fought under conditions shaped by race. Black soldiers faced the constant threat of unequal treatment if captured, lower pay for much of the war, and the expectation—often realized—that they would be assigned the most dangerous tasks. For James, enlistment meant entering not only the army but a proving ground where service itself was an assertion of manhood and citizenship.

James, whose life had been grounded in upstate New York, joined the 8th USCT when it deployed to Hilton Head, South Carolina, in January 1864. Within a month, he and the regiment faced their first combat at the Battle of Olustee on February 20, the bloodiest engagement of the war in Florida.31 Late in the battle, as Union forces began to retreat, the 8th was ordered forward to hold the line under intense Confederate fire. A lieutenant in Company K later described the men forming under fire with knapsacks still on and weapons unloaded, having run nearly half a mile before establishing a line scarcely two hundred yards from a concealed enemy. At first, the soldiers dropped to the ground as casualties mounted, but they soon regained their composure and returned fire. Their greatest disadvantage, he noted, was not fear but inexperience: “very little practice in firing, and, though they could stand and be killed, they could not kill a concealed enemy.”32

The cost for the regiment was devastating. Colonel Charles Fribley, the unit’s white commander, was killed, and of roughly 575 men present, 310 were killed, wounded, or missing—the highest casualty toll of any Union regiment at Olustee.33 Witnesses from both sides reported that some wounded Black soldiers who could not retreat were murdered rather than taken prisoner, reflecting the racialized violence faced by United States Colored Troops.34 For James, Olustee was an initiation by fire, a first confrontation with the mortal dangers of combat and an early lesson in the endurance, discipline, and courage demanded of Black soldiers.

James’s war became deeply personal on August 18, 1864. By then, the regiment had been transferred north to join Grant’s campaign against Petersburg, Virginia. Positioned at the extreme front behind hastily constructed breastworks at Deep Bottom along the James River, the 8th USCT came under a determined Confederate assault. When Union pickets were driven back and a supporting regiment withdrew from the right flank, James and his comrades were left dangerously exposed. Enemy forces, as reported by the major of James’s regiment four days after the battle, “pressed forward to the works on my right and to the edge of the woods in my front, but were soon compelled by the severity of my fire to retire.”35 Amid the confusion of that exchange, James was wounded severely in the shoulder.36

The injury ended his active service. Evacuated to Fort Monroe Hospital, James remained under medical care for the rest of the war. When he was finally mustered out on June 23, 1865—ten months after his wound—he was discharged for disability rather than completing his three-year enlistment.37 The war had offered James wages, purpose, and the promise of belonging; it returned him home permanently injured, but with an identity as a soldier that would endure long after his body could no longer sustain the labor on which independence depended.

When James returned to civilian life after the war, his world narrowed quickly. He applied for and was granted a pension based on the wound he had received at Deep Bottom, an early indication that the physical labor that had sustained him before the war would now be difficult to maintain.38 By 1870, his mother had died, severing the last tie to the household that had anchored him since childhood. James had settled once more in Beekmantown and married Margaret, a white woman sixteen years his junior. Their household included Margaret’s ten-year-old brother, William, and a five-year-old child, Emily Finegan, whose precise relationship to the family remains unclear. At thirty-seven, James continued to work as a farm laborer, despite the limitations imposed by his injury.39

Such stability as James achieved came largely through proximity. His brother William lived next door with his wife Eliza and their seven children, recreating—if only partially—the kin-based support that had defined James’s earlier life. Even here, continuity proved fragile. William’s son George boarded with a nearby family as a farm laborer, while his eldest son, James, disappeared from the historical record entirely—a reminder of how easily lives could slip beyond documentation in the nineteenth century.40 James’s sister Jane also remained in Beekmantown, living with her husband and six children. Like James and William, her husband James Kelly supported his household through farm labor.41

The wider Black community that had once buffered James’s childhood was thinning as well. Two of the families that had long shaped Black life in Beekmantown were gone by 1870. After Azel Soper’s death in 1864, property records show his family selling their land and leaving town.42 George Nutt and his family departed in 1865 for Pleasant Prairie Township, Minnesota, where Nutt and all of his children thereafter consistently identified as white in census records.43 Their departures marked more than geographic mobility; they signaled the unraveling of a community that had once included landowners, skilled tradesmen, and multigenerational households.

James and his family alongside their neighbors in the 1880 census

Source: 1880 US census, Clinton County, New York, population schedule, Beekmantown Township.

By 1880, James’s household had shifted yet again, reflecting both resilience and narrowing options. Now forty-seven, James was still listed as head of household and married to Margaret, then thirty-six. No children resided with them; instead, they followed a familiar pattern among Black families in Beekmantown, caring for Margaret’s seventy-year-old mother, Melissa Jabut. James had moved away from farm labor and was working instead as a woodcutter, felling timber in the forests that still covered much of Clinton County.44 It was punishing work—dangerous, physically exhausting, and poorly paid—but it was labor he could manage despite the lingering effects of his war wound. The hazards of the job were underscored by a brief notice in the local paper reporting that David Dupree, James’s neighbor and a fellow woodcutter, had “while chopping in the woods a week ago, gave his foot quite a severe gash with the axe.”45

The households surrounding James suggest that his own interracial marriage existed within a small but visible pattern of racial boundary-crossing that remained uneasy and closely scrutinized. His neighbor David Duprey, a white man living with his four children, also cohabited with a Black woman, Lucy Billings. In a town of more than 2,600 residents, Lucy was the only person described in the census as a “mistress,” a label that appears less descriptive than corrective—an attempt by the census taker to impose distance on a relationship that defied accepted norms.46 Like James and Margaret, Duprey and Billings occupied a social space that was neither hidden nor fully acknowledged, their domestic lives recorded in ways that reveal as much about white discomfort as about Black presence.

The Black community that had once surrounded James was steadily thinning. His brother William remained in Beekmantown with his wife and six children but no longer lived nearby.47 Foreshadowing a broader pattern, his sister Jane had moved across Lake Champlain to Burlington, Vermont, where her husband and five children were working; even eleven-year-old Orville was employed in odd jobs at a milling store rather than attending school.48 The remaining Black households in Beekmantown were small—no more than four people in any dwelling—and all were newcomers, reflecting a fragile persistence rather than rooted continuity. Sometime in the 1880s, James himself left Beekmantown and moved south to the hamlet of Redford in the town of Saranac, following cousins who had settled in the area where his Uncle Martin had once worked at the Crown Glass Works.

Despite decades of exhausting manual labor, James did not relinquish his identity as a soldier. On June 23, 1888—exactly twenty-three years after his discharge from the Union Army—he joined the Grand Army of the Republic. He listed his occupation as “farmer,” and appears on the muster roll alongside George Tankard of Redford, his cousin and the son of his Uncle Martin—a quiet reminder that military service remained a shared family legacy within the Tankard family. James’s GAR record carefully preserved the details of his wartime service in Company H of the 8th United States Colored Infantry, including his discharge for disability, affirming a chapter of his life that civilian records often reduced to labor alone.49

For Black veterans like James, the GAR offered something rare in the postwar North: recognition without formal racial exclusion, fellowship, and a collective voice in the struggle for pensions and respect. James remained active in the organization for six years, from 1888 until his suspension in 1894 and removal from the rolls in 1895.50 While the records do not specify the cause, such removals were often linked to an inability to pay dues or declining health that made attendance difficult. By the mid-1890s, James was in his early sixties, his wartime injury compounded by decades of physical labor. His disappearance from the GAR rolls does not suggest indifference, but rather the narrowing economic margins of an aging Black veteran whose service was honored in principle, if not fully supported in practice. Even so, James continued to participate in veteran life: when the 12th annual reunion of the Clinton County Union Veteran’s Association was held at a GAR post just outside Plattsburgh in September 1900, he was among the attendees noted in the newspaper.51

The 1890 veterans census still captured James in a familiar posture: fifty-seven years old and living in Saranac, the community where descendants of his Uncle Martin continued to reside. Despite the passage of time, James identified without qualification as a veteran of a United States Colored Troops regiment. His record noted a twenty-six-year struggle with chronic diarrhea, alongside a shoulder wound sustained during his service—a reminder that the war remained present in his body long after it had ended.52 

A decade later, that stability had quietly eroded. By 1900, James was sixty-seven, widowed after Margaret’s death sometime in the previous decade, and living not with family but as a boarder in the house of Henry Lord in Ellenburg—a marginal and dependent position.53 His departure from Beekmantown to Redford in the 1880s and again to Ellenburg by 1900 echoed a wider pattern of dispersal among Black residents in the region. The census listed James as a “day laborer,” but also recorded that he had been unemployed for eight months of the previous year. At his age, burdened by old war wounds and decades of physical labor, the hardest work was no longer available to him, while the lighter work went to younger men.

For the second time in his life, the census noted that James could read and write. Whether this reflected an enumerator’s assumption, James’s own assertion, or a fragile skill acquired late in life remains unclear, but the timing is telling: literacy appears in the record only when it could no longer secure independence. What remains visible instead is a man who had outlived his strength, his wife, and the community that once anchored him.

A closer look at the Black community in Beekmantown in 1900 helps explain why James ultimately turned elsewhere. The community that had sustained Black families throughout much of the nineteenth century was nearly gone. Only two households included people of color: the family of one of James’s nephews and a Tankard cousin listed as an invalid boarder.54 The dense network of kin, neighbors, and shared labor that had once made survival possible had effectively collapsed. When the census taker returned a decade later, even that remnant had disappeared; the lone Black resident of Beekmantown was recorded not in a household, but in the County Poor House.55 In this context, James’s move to Ellenburg appears less as a choice than a necessity—a search for shelter and support in a town where any such network still existed.

James Tankard’s admission paperwork to the County Poorhouse

Source: New York State Archives; Albany, New York; Census of Inmates in Almshouses and Poorhouses, 1875-1921

The final chapter of James Tankard’s life unfolded quietly in the summer of 1903. On August 1, he was admitted to the Clinton County Poorhouse in Beekmantown, returning in sickness to the place where he had been born seventy years earlier. The admission record reduces a long life to a handful of stark facts: Black, widowed, born in Plattsburgh, with no formal education and no living relatives.56 His brother William—so long a constant presence—had died two years earlier, removing the last pillar of family support.57 The cause of James’s dependence was listed simply as “sickness.” When asked what kind of labor he could perform, the answer was “none.”58

Under occupation, James did not record the work that had consumed his body—woodcutting, day labor, decades of physical toil. Instead, he wrote “soldier.” It was the identity that had once given his life purpose and standing, and the one he chose to carry with him at the end. In the remarks column, the superintendent noted with routine optimism, “He will leave as soon as he recovers.” James Tankard never recovered. He died seventeen days later, on August 17, 1903.59

James Tankard’s grave in the County Home Cemetery in Beekmantown—the potter’s field for those who died dependent on public charity—stands as a final measure of both endurance and erasure. For decades, James lived a life marked by labor and care, sustained by a resilient network of Black households that once anchored Beekmantown through work and kinship. But by 1903, the informal networks that had absorbed age, injury, and loss were gone. When James grew too old to work and was left alone by his wife’s death, there was nothing left to support him but the poorhouse—a fate that was not a failure of character, but the result of a world in which labor sustained life only as long as the body held. Yet, even as the community that once sustained him vanished around him, James remained the architect of his own story. By declaring himself a ‘soldier,’ he ensured that his last official record would reflect not how he had toiled, but the identity he had claimed through his service.

Endnotes

  1. Find a Grave, “James Tankard (1833–1903),” Memorial 94997655, citing County Home Cemetery, Beekmantown, Clinton County, New York, accessed January 1, 2026, https://www.findagrave.com/memorial/94997655/james-tankard.
  2. In this study, the term “Black” is used to describe individuals whom nineteenth-century census enumerators variously classified as “Black” or “mulatto.” These distinctions reflected the assumptions and practices of census takers rather than meaningful differences in legal status or lived experience. For the purposes of this analysis, a unified term is used to emphasize the shared social, legal, and economic position of nonwhite residents in Beekmantown, while avoiding the reproduction of racial categories that were inconsistently applied and historically contingent.
  3. William A. Robbins and Elizabeth Ellen Schnebly Treadwell, Descendants of Edward Tre(a)dwell through His Son John (New York: T.A. Wright Press, 1911), 78. Tredwell’s relationship to slavery reflected the contradictions that were common among elite New Yorkers during the period. During the New York ratifying convention in 1788, he publicly condemned slavery, yet he brought forty enslaved people with him when he moved to northern New York and still held slaves as late as 1810.
  4. Ibid.
  5. 1900 US census, Clinton County, New York, population schedule, Ellenburg Township, Henry Lord household, dwelling 182 family 182, digital image, Ancestry (http://www.ancestry.com: accessed January 2026); citing National Archives Microfilm Publication, Roll 1018, Pages: 10.
  6. “James Tankard,” Record no. 1025, Census of Inmates in Almshouses and Poorhouses, 1875–1921, Reel A1978:20, Series A1978, New York State Archives, Albany, New York.
  7. Philip L. White, Beekmantown, New York: Forest Frontier to Farm Community (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1979), 177.
  8. 1820 US census, Clinton County, New York, population schedule, Plattsburgh Township, George Tankard household, digital image, Ancestry (http://www.ancestry.com: accessed January 2026); citing National Archives Microfilm Publication M33, Roll 66, page 472.
  9. 1820 US census, Clinton County, New York, population schedule, Plattsburgh Township, Sampson Soper household, digital image, Ancestry (http://www.ancestry.com: accessed January 2026); citing National Archives Microfilm Publication M33, Roll 66, page 468.
  10. 1830 US census, Clinton County, New York, population schedule, Plattsburgh Township, George Tankard household, digital image, Ancestry (http://www.ancestry.com: accessed January 2026); citing National Archives Microfilm Publication M19, Roll 85, page 263.
  11. 1830 US census, Clinton County, New York, population schedule, Plattsburgh Township, Sampson Soper household, digital image, Ancestry (http://www.ancestry.com: accessed January 2026); citing National Archives Microfilm Publication M19, Roll 85, page 263.
  12. 1840 US census, Clinton County, New York, population schedule, Beekmantown Township, George Tankard household, digital image, Ancestry (http://www.ancestry.com: accessed January 2026); citing National Archives Microfilm Publication Roll 276, page 215.
  13. 1840 US census, Clinton County, New York, population schedule, Beekmantown Township, Azel Soper and Elisha Billings households, digital image, Ancestry (http://www.ancestry.com: accessed January 2026); citing National Archives Microfilm Publication Roll 276, page 215.
  14. Warner McLaughlin, “A History of the Redford Crown Glass Works at Redford, Clinton County, N. Y.,” New York History 26, no. 3 (1945): 370.
  15. White, Beekmantown, 106.
  16. 1850 US census, Clinton County, New York, population schedule, Beekmantown Township, George Tankard household, dwelling 924 family 987, digital image, Ancestry (http://www.ancestry.com: accessed January 2026); citing National Archives Microfilm Publication M432, Roll 489, page 314b.
  17. “List of Letters,” Plattsburgh Republican (NY), notices for Mrs. Isabelle Tankford: July 14, 1838, 1; July 21, 1838, 3; October 6, 1838, 3; January 5, 1839, 3; January 19, 1839, 3; July 13, 1839, 1; October 1, 1842, 3; October 8, 1842, 1; January 2, 1847, 3; January 9, 1847, 1; October 6, 1849, 3; October 13, 1849, 3; January 19, 1850, 1; July 6, 1850, 3; July 13, 1850, 1; December 4, 1858, 3.
  18. 1850 US census, Clinton County, New York, population schedule, Beekmantown Township, Azel Soper household, dwelling 139 family 141, digital image, Ancestry (http://www.ancestry.com: accessed January 2026); citing National Archives Microfilm Publication M432, Roll 489, page 10b.
  19. 1850 US census, Clinton County, New York, population schedule, Beekmantown Township, George Nutt household, dwelling 955 family 1019, digital image, Ancestry (http://www.ancestry.com: accessed January 2026); citing National Archives Microfilm Publication M432, Roll 489, page 316b.
  20. A. Ligowsky, Map of Clinton Co., New York (Philadelphia: O. J. Lamb, 1856), map, Library of Congress, https://www.loc.gov/item/2009583837/.
  21. 1850 US census, Clinton County, New York, population schedule, Beekmantown Township, Jacob Oakley household, dwelling 956 family 1020, digital image, Ancestry (http://www.ancestry.com: accessed January 2026); citing National Archives Microfilm Publication M432, Roll 489, page 316b. 1850 US census, Clinton County, New York, population schedule, Beekmantown Township, Jenny York household, dwelling 957 family 1021, digital image, Ancestry (http://www.ancestry.com: accessed January 2026); citing National Archives Microfilm Publication M432, Roll 489, page 316b.
  22. 1860 US census, Clinton County, New York, population schedule, Plattsburgh Township, Isabel Tankford household, dwelling 736 family 880, digital image, Ancestry (http://www.ancestry.com: accessed January 2026); citing National Archives Microfilm Publication M653, Roll 736, page 876.
  23. 1860 US census, Clinton County, New York, population schedule, Plattsburgh Township, Theodore Winchell household, dwelling 736 family 879, digital image, Ancestry (http://www.ancestry.com: accessed January 2026); citing National Archives Microfilm Publication M653, Roll 736, page 876.
  24. 1860 US census, Clinton County, New York, population schedule, Plattsburgh Township, William Tankford household, dwelling 737 family 881, digital image, Ancestry (http://www.ancestry.com: accessed January 2026); citing National Archives Microfilm Publication M653, Roll 736, page 876.
  25. 1860 US census, Clinton County, New York, population schedule, Beekmantown Township, Azel Soper household, dwelling 1226 family 1126, digital image, Ancestry (http://www.ancestry.com: accessed January 2026); citing National Archives Microfilm Publication M653, Roll 735, page 342.
  26. 1860 US census, Clinton County, New York, population schedule, Beekmantown Township, James Kelly household, dwelling 963 family 886, digital image, Ancestry (http://www.ancestry.com: accessed January 2026); citing National Archives Microfilm Publication M653, Roll 735, page 309.
  27. James Tankard, entry in Company Descriptive Book, Company H, 8th U.S. Colored Troops, Compiled Service Records of Volunteer Union Soldiers Who Served with the United States Colored Troops: Infantry Organizations, 8th through 13th, National Archives, Washington, DC; digital image, Ancestry.com (https://www.ancestry.com : accessed January 11, 2026); citing NARA microfilm publication M1821.
  28. James Tankard, “Substitute Volunteer Enlistment,” 1863, Compiled Service Records of Volunteer Union Soldiers Who Served with the United States Colored Troops: Infantry Organizations, 8th through 13th, National Archives, Washington, DC; digital image, Ancestry.com (https://www.ancestry.com : accessed January 11, 2026); citing NARA microfilm publication M1821.
  29. “List of Men Drafted from the County of Clinton,” Plattsburgh Republican (Plattsburgh, NY), July 18, 1863, 3, col. 1.
  30. Frederick H. Dyer, A Compendium of the War of the Rebellion: Compiled and Arranged from Official Records of the Federal and Confederate Armies, Reports of the Adjutant Generals of the Several States, the Army Registers, and Other Reliable Documents and Sources (Des Moines, IA: Dyer Publishing Co., 1908), 1725.
  31. Ibid.Oliver Willcox Norton, Army Letters, 1861–1865: Being Extracts from Private Letters to Relatives and Friends from a Soldier in the Field during the Late Civil War (Chicago: O. L. Deming, 1903), 198.
  32. Oliver Willcox Norton, Army Letters, 1861–1865: Being Extracts from Private Letters to Relatives and Friends from a Soldier in the Field during the Late Civil War (Chicago: O. L. Deming, 1903), 198.Samuel P. Bates, History of Pennsylvania Volunteers, 1861-5: Prepared in Compliance with Acts of the Legislature, vol. 5 (Harrisburg: B. Singerly, 1871), 966.
  33. Samuel P. Bates, History of Pennsylvania Volunteers, 1861-5: Prepared in Compliance with Acts of the Legislature, vol. 5 (Harrisburg: B. Singerly, 1871), 966.Angela M. Zombek, “The Battle of Olustee,” American Battlefield Trust, last modified August 3, 2023, https://www.battlefields.org/learn/articles/battle-olustee.
  34. Angela M. Zombek, “The Battle of Olustee,” American Battlefield Trust, last modified August 3, 2023, https://www.battlefields.org/learn/articles/battle-olustee.
  35. George E. Wagner, “Report of Maj. George E. Wagner, Eighth U.S. Colored Troops, of Operations August 18,” August 22, 1864, in U.S. War Department, The War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies, vol. 42, pt. 1 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1893), 780.
  36. James Tankard, “Casualty Sheet of Wounded,” August 18, 1864, Compiled Service Records of Volunteer Union Soldiers Who Served with the United States Colored Troops: Infantry Organizations, 8th through 13th, National Archives, Washington, DC; digital image, Ancestry.com (https://www.ancestry.com : accessed January 11, 2026); citing NARA microfilm publication M1821.
  37. James Tankard, “Company Muster Roll,” August 1864-June 1865, Compiled Service Records of Volunteer Union Soldiers Who Served with the United States Colored Troops: Infantry Organizations, 8th through 13th, National Archives, Washington, DC; digital image, Ancestry.com (https://www.ancestry.com : accessed January 11, 2026); citing NARA microfilm publication M1821.
  38. James Tankard (Co. H, 8th U.S. Colored Infantry), Civil War Pension Index, application no. 75,072, certificate no. 608,634; General Index to Pension Files, 1861–1934, T288; National Archives, Washington, DC; digital image, Ancestry.com (https://www.ancestry.com : accessed January 11, 2026).
  39. 1870 US census, Clinton County, New York, population schedule, Beekmantown Township, James Tankard household, dwelling 164 family 163, digital image, Ancestry (http://www.ancestry.com: accessed January 2026); citing National Archives Microfilm Publication M593, Roll 918, page 84B.
  40. 1870 US census, Clinton County, New York, population schedule, Beekmantown Township, William Tankard household, dwelling 163 family 162, digital image, Ancestry (http://www.ancestry.com: accessed January 2026); citing National Archives Microfilm Publication M593, Roll 918, page 84B.
  41. 1870 US census, Clinton County, New York, population schedule, Beekmantown Township, James Kelly household, dwelling 361 family 355, digital image, Ancestry (http://www.ancestry.com: accessed January 2026); citing National Archives Microfilm Publication M593, Roll 918, page 97A.
  42. Find a Grave, “Azel T. Soper (1806–1864),” Memorial 106580999, citing Riverside Cemetery, Plattsburgh, Clinton County, New York, accessed January 11, 2026, https://www.findagrave.com/memorial/106580999/azel-t.-soper.
  43. 1880 US census, Martin County, Minnesota, population schedule, Pleasant Prairie Township, George Nutt household, dwelling 21, family 21, digital image, Ancestry (http://www.ancestry.com: accessed January 2026); citing National Archives Microfilm Publication, Roll 626, page 163c.
  44. 1880 US census, Clinton County, New York, population schedule, Beekmantown Township, James Tankard household, dwelling 250 family 249, digital image, Ancestry (http://www.ancestry.com: accessed January 2026); citing National Archives Microfilm Publication Roll 819, page 104D.
  45. “Rand Hill,” The Plattsburgh Sentinel (Plattsburgh, NY), January 4, 1889, 8.
  46. 1880 US census, Clinton County, New York, population schedule, Beekmantown Township, David Duprey household, dwelling 252 family 251, digital image, Ancestry (http://www.ancestry.com: accessed January 2026); citing National Archives Microfilm Publication Roll 819, page 104D.
  47. 1880 US census, Clinton County, New York, population schedule, Beekmantown Township, William Tankard household, dwelling 114 family 106, digital image, Ancestry (http://www.ancestry.com: accessed January 2026); citing National Archives Microfilm Publication Roll 819, page 96D.
  48. 1880 US census, Chittenden County, Vermont, population schedule, Burlington Township, James Kelly household, dwelling 11 family 12, digital image, Ancestry (http://www.ancestry.com: accessed January 2026); citing National Archives Microfilm Publication Roll 1343, page 10C.
  49. James Tankard, entry in Descriptive Book, John S. Stone Post 352 (Saranac), Grand Army of the Republic Records, 1871–1928, Series B1706, New York State Archives, Albany, NY; digital image, Ancestry.com (https://www.ancestry.com: accessed January 2026).
  50. Ibid.
  51. “Clinton County Veterans,” The Plattsburgh Sentinel (NY), September 7, 1900, 1, col. 6.
  52. 1890 U.S. Census, Special Schedule – Surviving Soldiers, Sailors, and Marines and Widows, Saranac, Clinton County, New York, enumeration district (ED) 32, p. 1, line 21, James Tankard; National Archives Microfilm M123, roll 50; digital image, Ancestry.com (https://www.ancestry.com: accessed January 2026).
  53. 1900 US census, Clinton County, New York, population schedule, Ellenburg Township, Henry Lord household, dwelling 182 family 182, digital image, Ancestry (http://www.ancestry.com: accessed January 2026); citing National Archives Microfilm Publication Roll 1018, page 10.
  54. 1900 US census, Clinton County, New York, population schedule, Beekmantown Township, William Tankard household, dwelling 138 family 140, digital image, Ancestry (http://www.ancestry.com: accessed January 2026); citing National Archives Microfilm Publication Roll 1018, page 8.
  55. 1910 US census, Clinton County, New York, population schedule, Beekmantown Township, enumeration district (ED) 5, Charles Crassier, dwelling 192 family 193, digital image, Ancestry (http://www.ancestry.com: accessed January 2026); citing National Archives Microfilm Publication T624 Roll 932, page 9B.
  56. James Tankard, Census of Inmates in Almshouses and Poorhouses, 1875–1921, record no. 1025, Clinton County Poorhouse; Series A1978, reel 20; New York State Archives, Albany, NY; digital image, Ancestry.com (https://www.ancestry.com : accessed January 2026).
  57. New York State Department of Health, “William Tankard death entry, 1901,” New York State Death Index, 1880–1956, Ancestry.com (https://www.ancestry.com : accessed January 2026), citing Certificate Number 16218.
  58. James Tankard, Census of Inmates in Almshouses and Poorhouses, 1875–1921, record no. 1025, Clinton County Poorhouse; Series A1978, reel 20; New York State Archives, Albany, NY; digital image, Ancestry.com (https://www.ancestry.com : accessed January 2026).
  59. Ibid.

George’s tale

~ Darren Phaneuf ~ 2 Comments
George and Edith Phaneuf's grave in Saint Ann’s Cemetery, Mooers Forks, NY

George and Edith Phaneuf’s grave in Saint Ann’s Cemetery, Mooers Forks, NY

Source: author’s personal collection

Along a row near the property line of Saint Ann’s Cemetery in Mooers Forks, New York, a modest gravestone marks the resting place of George Edward Phaneuf. The marker offers little beyond his name, dates, and the promise of “Perpetual Care.”1 There are no carved tools to suggest a trade, no epitaph to summarize a life. Yet the stone marks the end of a life that unfolded almost entirely within sight of a water-powered sawmill in Perry’s Mills—a life shaped early by loss, sustained by physical labor, and marked by a resilience forged long before adulthood.

George was born on Christmas Day, 1892, in the small hamlet of Perry’s Mills, part of the town of Champlain, New York, a border town whose rhythms were set by agriculture, timber, and the steady movement of goods and people across the Canadian line.2 Champlain’s history had long been shaped by larger forces. Founded after the American Revolution, it endured British incursions during the War of 1812, benefited from nineteenth-century railroad expansion, and depended on the Great Chazy River to power mills that anchored local employment. By the time of George’s birth, Champlain had become a modest industrial-agricultural community linked to Montreal and the Hudson Valley by rail.

George’s parents, Antoine Phaneuf and Laura Roy, were part of the region’s substantial French-Canadian Catholic population.3 Antoine, thirty-seven at the time of George’s birth, was born in Champlain after his family immigrated from Canada in the 1840s to work in the lumber industry.4 Laura, twenty-seven at George’s birth, was also born in New York, likewise the daughter of two French-Canadian immigrants. Her childhood was marked early by loss. At the age of four, Laura’s mother died, forcing an abrupt reorganization of family life. The 1870 census records the family headed by her father, Bozil Roy, assisted by a French-Canadian housekeeper, Mary Lafountain. Even in childhood, economic necessity shaped family life. Laura’s three older brothers—Mitchell, age nineteen; Bozil, sixteen; and Felix, eleven—were already employed in a local shingle mill, a pattern common in wage-earning households of the period.5

Antoine and Laura with their first three children: Frank, Laura, and Antoine

Antoine and Laura with their first three children: Frank, Laura, and Antoine (l-r)

Source: author’s personal collection

Within a decade of losing her mother, Laura married Antoine at the age of fifteen and began a family of her own, entering a household already shaped by necessity rather than choice. Despite being newly married, Antoine and Laura’s household already reflected the complexity common to families of the period—blended kin networks shaped by loss, necessity, and shared work. Laura’s aging father continued to live with them, as did her brother Felix, reinforcing the interdependence of extended family members.6 Over the next several years, their household expanded with the births of children Antoine, Frank, and Laura; after George’s birth in 1892, daughters Hattie and Dora also joined the family.7 George’s early childhood unfolded within a recognizable late-nineteenth-century rhythm of family life—routine, labor, faith, and the quiet expectation that survival was collective.

George’s childhood was abruptly altered in April 1898, when his mother Laura died at age thirty-three.8 Her death echoed an earlier family trauma—Laura herself had lost her mother in 1869—and in an era without social welfare systems, such a loss was not merely emotional but structurally destabilizing. Working-class mothers coordinated the essential labor of daily survival, from food preservation and clothing production to childcare, illness management, and emotional regulation, all without the benefit of antibiotics or public assistance. Their absence forced families to reorganize quickly and children to assume adult responsibilities with little transition. Historians of childhood bereavement suggest that early parental loss often produced not rebellion, but inward discipline: a quiet orientation toward reliability, repetition, and obligation.9 For George, the lesson learned in childhood was not how to escape hardship, but how to endure it. That pattern would repeat throughout his life.

George’s first appearance in the census, at age seven, records him living in Champlain under one of several phonetic spellings—Fenneff, Phenuff, Pheneuf, and Phinnff—that recur throughout the historical record. Such distortions were common for French surnames recorded by English-speaking census takers; names bent easily under the pen, even as the expectations attached to those names remained fixed. The census places George in a crowded, multigenerational household with his father and stepmother Mary, alongside five siblings, two stepbrothers, and two additional stepsisters, the byproduct of losing his mother.10

George and his blended family in the 1910--although just 17, he's already found work

George and his blended family in 1910–although just 17, he’s already working full-time

Source: 1910 US census, Clinton County, New York, population schedule, Champlain Township.

By 1910, seventeen-year-old George was already employed as a laborer at a shingle mill, having left school early—a common path for rural working-class youth—for full-time wage labor. His blended household, still led by his father Antoine and stepmother Mary, depended on multiple wage earners to remain afloat. At the time of the census taker’s visit, two adult males in the household were unemployed—Antoine for fifteen weeks and George’s brother Frank for five—leaving only George and his stepbrother Fred contributing wages.11 George’s work, however, was anything but easy. Lumber and sawmill labor in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries was widely recognized as physically punishing and dangerous. Millworkers operated exposed blades, belts, and water-powered machinery in poorly lit buildings, often at high speeds and with little protection. Safety regulations were minimal, and injuries—from amputations to fatal crushing accidents—were accepted as occupational hazards rather than aberrations. Early industrial lumber workplaces were among the most dangerous in the American economy, with injury and fatality rates that far exceeded those of many other industries.12 For George, this environment was not exceptional but formative: a world in which danger became routine and physical endurance replaced formal education as the foundation of his adult identity.

Champlain itself was changing as George came of age, though unevenly and often incompletely. Horses still dominated transportation, but automobiles began appearing on village roads before World War I. Electricity reached some households, yet access remained inconsistent and often bypassed renters and laborers. New industries briefly flourished, including ski manufacturing launched by Swedish immigrants Oscar and Henrik Bredenberg, whose workshop—and later factory—placed Champlain at the forefront of an emerging sport.13 Novelty industries rose and fell, yet timber endured, bound to the land, the river, and the unchanging need for shelter.

George's WWI draft registration showing both his work for the Rutland RR and his signature

George’s WWI draft registration showing both his work for the Rutland RR and his signature

Source: U.S. World War I Draft Registration Cards, 1917-1918

In June 1917, as the United States entered World War I, George registered for the draft, described in his registration as brown-haired and brown-eyed, and listing his occupation as carpenter employed by Hector Kaufman of Perry’s Mills—the small hamlet west of Champlain where he had been born and raised.14 This was part of a lifelong association with the Kaufman Lumber Company, a water-powered sawmill that served as the economic anchor of Perry’s Mills for generations. Operating continuously since the early 1900s, the Kaufman Lumber Company was old-fashioned even by early twentieth-century standards. Powered by water flowing beneath its floor, it belonged to a dwindling class of mills that relied on natural force rather than steam or electricity. The mill employed between six and twelve men depending on the season. Logs—primarily pine and hemlock—were purchased, sawn, planed, and sold as building materials to surrounding farms and towns. A planing mill operated alongside the sawmill, and the company supplied lumber essential to barns, houses, and fences throughout the region.15 At a moment when millions of young men were uprooted and sent across oceans, George remained rooted to the local economy, producing the materials that undergirded both civilian life and wartime mobilization.

The war years brought steady demand for lumber, even for men who never went overseas. On September 1st, 1919, George married Edith Meseck, nine years younger, from nearby Mooers Forks.16 Echoing another trend among French Canadians of the era, George married the sister-in-law of his younger sister Hattie, who had married Edward Meseck in April 1911. The marriage of George and Edith didn’t immediately find them residing on their own–the 1920 census records the newlyweds living with George’s father Antoine and his brother Frank in Perry’s Mills, just across the river from the lumber mill, anchoring home and work in the same physical landscape.17

The 1920s did not roar in Perry’s Mills. For working families, prosperity meant steady employment rather than consumer abundance. George’s wages covered food, rent, and clothing as the family expanded, beginning with the birth of Floyd in 1920; by 1930, George and Edith were raising five children.18 The family likely moved between rented homes near the mill, minimizing transportation costs and keeping George within walking distance of work. For him, employment at Kaufman’s offered routine rather than advancement. He performed physically demanding labor year after year, adapting to seasonal rhythms dictated by water and weather: winter froze the stream beneath the mill floor, spring thaws brought dangerous surges, and summer demanded long hours. The work required sustained attention, strength, and an acceptance of risk. Men aged quickly in such environments, their bodies absorbing the cost of constancy.

The Great Depression arrived not as a single event but as a tightening vise that transformed subsistence into struggle. Construction slowed, credit vanished, and seasonal layoffs lengthened, hitting rural northern New York especially hard as collapsing farm prices and stalled building projects reduced demand for lumber.18 George remained employed at Kaufman Lumber, working long hours for modest wages while renting a small home in Perry’s Mills, just a few houses from mill owner Hector Kaufman. The survival of the household, however, depended as much on Edith’s labor as on George’s wages. Edith managed the family economy with skill and discipline, stretching every dollar through production rather than purchase. The family planted large gardens each spring, tended crops through the short growing season, and preserved the harvest in the fall, canning tomatoes, string beans, beets, and other vegetables to sustain the household through the long North Country winters.

As the 1930s progressed, Edith’s responsibilities expanded alongside the household itself, which grew from five children to ten over the course of the decade.20 Each additional birth increased the demands on a system already stretched thin. Pregnancy, childcare, illness, and food management overlapped continuously, leaving little margin for rest or error. Older children were drawn early into household labor, caring for younger siblings, assisting with food production, and contributing in ways that blurred the line between childhood and work. The family functioned as an interdependent unit, its internal cooperation mirroring the collective labor required in the mill where George spent his days. While George’s family expanded, his father Antoine died at eighty-three in 1938, closing the generational arc that had shaped George’s childhood.

The one known photo of George and Edith, circa 1965

Source: author’s personal collection

The 1940 census illuminates how George sustained a household of twelve ranging in age from twenty-year-old Floyd to newborn Jean. George continued to work forty-eight hours per week at the lumber mill and had been employed for all fifty-two weeks of the previous year, earning $936—about $18 per week, or thirty-seven cents an hour—an income that made providing for such a large family a constant challenge. Survival depended on shared labor. George’s eldest son, Floyd, worked thirty-five weeks at the mill, contributing $372 to the household economy, while eldest daughter Lorena earned an additional $15 through part-time domestic work.21 Younger children packed shingles with George in the evenings for piece-rate wages, and the family supplemented income further by harvesting potatoes for the local general store. The family’s ability to remain employed and assemble multiple income streams through the Depression speaks not to prosperity, but to reliability. George showed up. He worked. He endured.

World War II brought renewed demand for lumber and new anxieties at home. While George continued working, producing materials essential to a global conflict, Floyd enlisted in the U.S. Army on February 8, 1944, in Albany, New York.22 Entering service as a private, he was sent to the Pacific Theater, where American forces faced brutal jungle warfare, disease, and staggering casualty rates.23 For George and Edith, Floyd’s service meant prolonged uncertainty. Letters arrived sporadically. Newspapers carried casualty lists. As a father who had labored through the Great Depression and witnessed one world war already, George understood the particular burden war placed on laboring families. Survival was never assumed. That Floyd returned alive was itself a victory marked quietly, without ceremony.

While war intensified risks abroad, George himself faced dangers of a different sort in his day-to-day work. Nowhere was that made more clear than when in December 1946, Hector Kaufman Jr., George’s employer and fellow laborer, was caught in a revolving shaft while attempting to slip a belt onto a pulley. His clothing was torn from his body. His right leg required amputation; his left leg, both arms, and ribs were broken; his lung punctured. As the machinery continued to turn, workers rushed to intervene. Among them were Frank Phaneuf, George’s brother, and Cyrus Baker, George’s brother-in-law, married to his sister Laura. Together, they slowed the water-powered machinery long enough for Kaufman to drop free into the pit beneath the mill floor. Their actions almost certainly saved his life.24 The accident underscored the daily risks George accepted as routine, hazards endured quietly in exchange for wages and continuity, while also highlighting how labor and kinship overlapped. Men did not merely work alongside relatives—they relied on them for survival.

George and his family in 1950–he lives with seven kids and one grandchild on Mill Street; son Leo and wife Marie live next door

Source: 1950 US census, Clinton County, New York, population schedule, Champlain Township.

By 1950, the household George and Edith Phaneuf sustained remained complex rather than diminished. Ten people spanning three generations lived together on Mill Street in Perry’s Mills, where the youngest son, Kurt, was only six years older than his nephew Randall. At fifty-seven, George was still working full-time, now employed at the Bredenberg Brothers Ski Factory on Butternut Street in the village of Champlain—a reminder that industrial labor, rather than retirement, defined middle age for working-class men. The household economy depended on multiple contributors: daughter Geraldine worked full-time at a local laundry, while two older sons were actively seeking employment.25 Edith’s labor remained central. Routine chores such as laundry required hauling water from the river by wheelbarrow to fill the family’s gasoline-powered ringer washing machine, a vivid measure of the physical demands that persisted in daily life well into the postwar era.

Life in the Phaneuf household was not defined solely by work, loss, or economic strain. Music played a central role in family life, providing both pleasure and connection. Several of the children learned instruments, and the family regularly transformed their home on Mill Street into a social space. Furniture was pushed aside, the main floor cleared, and relatives and neighbors gathered for evenings of music and dancing. These gatherings offered a release from the routines of labor and responsibility and reinforced bonds of kinship and community. That love of music endured across generations. In later years, obituaries for two of George’s sons recalled lives shaped not only by work and family but by performance, noting their involvement in regional bands such as Chick O’Day and the Country Cousins and Tequila. Music, like labor, became a thread of continuity—something carried forward, adapted, and shared—offering balance to lives otherwise governed by obligation.26

Music offered moments of release and connection, but it could not insulate the Phaneufs from grief. Loss continued to shape George’s life beyond the workplace and beyond the moments of shared joy that filled their home. In March 1947, George’s oldest sister Laura died in Champlain at the age of forty-nine after a long illness, further thinning the family network that had sustained him since childhood.27 Obligations endured even as familiar anchors disappeared.

Loss returned with particular force in February 1956, when Lorena, George and Edith’s eldest daughter, died unexpectedly at the Montreal Neurological Institute after suffering a brain aneurysm at the age of thirty-three.28 She was buried in Saint Ann’s Cemetery in Mooers Forks, her gravestone bearing the inscription: “If tears could build a stairway and memories build a lane, I’d walk right up to heaven and bring you home again.” For George, Lorena’s death echoed the loss of his mother decades earlier, reinforcing grief as a recurring presence woven through life rather than a single, defining rupture.

The fire at Mill Street in Perry's Mills

Firefighters battling the fire at the Mill Street, Perry’s Mills, NY home in 1962

Source: courtesy of Donald Phaneuf

By the 1960s, George and Edith were aging, and the losses that had long punctuated their lives began to arrive with increasing frequency. Over a span of just four years, Edith lost five siblings, including her brother Eddie, who had been married to George’s sister Hattie and was likely the social connection through which she and George first came together. The year 1962 was particularly devastating for George. In February, his sister Hattie died; in May, his brother Frank—who had worked beside him for years at the Kaufman sawmill—was also lost.29 Coming on the heels of those deaths, the home on Mill Street that had often been filled with music and dancing, and that had watched children grow into adulthood, was destroyed by fire when an oil stove exploded in September.30 Furniture and possessions accumulated over decades vanished overnight. Once again, George and Edith turned inward to family for shelter, staying with their daughter Geraldine and her family. The response was not upheaval but recognition—an understanding, honed over a lifetime, that loss did not require reinvention. By late life, endurance had become habitual. For George and Edith, loss was no longer an ending, but another condition to be managed.

George and his sister Dora at the time of Edith's funeral

George and his sister Dora at the time of Edith’s funeral

Source: author’s personal collection

Five years later, George’s perseverance was tested in a way unlike any other loss. Edith’s death in November 1967 ended a forty-eight-year partnership forged through shared labor, hardship, and mutual reliance.31 For nearly half a century, Edith had been the steady center of George’s life—the manager of the household economy, the emotional anchor of a large and interdependent family, and the constant presence around which work, children, and community revolved. Family members later recalled that George was heartbroken, believing that with Edith’s death he had lost his greatest purpose. A photograph taken on the day of her funeral captures the weight of that loss. George stands beside his sister Dora—his final surviving sibling—two siblings who had lost their mother in childhood and were now reunited in mourning nearly seventy years later. The grief that had shaped George’s earliest years returned at the end of his life, not as a distant memory but as lived experience. Edith’s death did not merely mark the close of a marriage; it closed the emotional structure that had sustained George across decades of labor, loss, and endurance.

George in his later years with three of his grandkids

Source: author’s personal collection

In the years following Edith’s death, George lived quietly in Perry’s Mills, his world narrowed by age, loss, and habit, even as it expanded through the presence of the generations he had lived long enough to see. By then, he was surrounded by the nearby lives of thirty-five grandchildren and eight great-grandchildren—a measure not of abundance, but of continuity. Photographs show him holding grandchildren; family memories recall him kneeling beside them for bedtime prayers. In these final years, George relied on the same anchors that had sustained him throughout his life: family, faith, and familiarity.

On April 24, 1970, that long pattern of endurance ended suddenly when George was struck and killed by a car while crossing the road near his home. He had never learned to drive, remaining dependent on others even as automobiles reshaped American life. His death was ruled accidental—a final reminder of the vulnerability that accompanied old age and the risks that had shadowed his life in different forms from youth onward. He was seventy-seven years old.32

George Phaneuf’s life unfolded within narrow boundaries: the mill, the road, the family, the seasons. He worked with his hands, remained in the place of his birth, and raised his children amid persistent economic constraint. Through early loss, industrial danger, depression, war, and repeated personal grief, he endured—not with spectacle, but with reliability.

The modest stone that marks his grave records only his name and dates, yet it stands for something larger. It marks a life shaped by family, steadied by faith, and sustained through the familiar rhythms of work and home. His legacy is not distinction, but continuity—a life held steady long enough for others to endure less, and to build more. His story is that of quiet perseverance: a working man navigating extraordinary change by remaining, always, at his post.

Endnotes

  1. Find a Grave, memorial page for George E. Phaneuf (1892–1970), Memorial ID 32873745, citing Saint Ann’s Cemetery, Mooers Forks, Clinton County, New York; maintained by Carol Guerin (contributor 46992307), accessed December 18, 2025.
  2. Ibid.
  3. Laura’s familial name was recorded at various times as Le Roi, Le Roy, King, and Roy. I’ve opted for the familial name as shown on her father’s grave in Old Saint Mary’s Cemetery, Champlain, NY.
  4. 1860 US census, Clinton County, New York, population schedule, Champlain Township, Pauletto Fneffo household, dwelling 242 family 244, digital image, Ancestry (http://www.ancestry.com: accessed 2025); citing National Archives Microfilm Publication, Page: 597. Antoine’s father is recorded as a sawyer in the 1860 census, showing the family’s early entry into lumbering.
  5. 1870 US census, Clinton County, New York, population schedule, Champlain Township, Bazziel King household, dwelling 586 family 600, digital image, Ancestry (http://www.ancestry.com: accessed 2025); citing National Archives Microfilm Publication, Roll M593_918, Page: 190A.
  6. 1880 US census, Clinton County, New York, population schedule, Champlain Township, Antoine Faneuf household, dwelling 325 family 334, digital image, Ancestry (http://www.ancestry.com: accessed 2025); citing National Archives Microfilm Publication, Roll 819, Page: 180D.
  7. 1900 US census, Clinton County, New York, population schedule, Champlain Township, Antoine Fenneff household, dwelling 286 family 286, digital image, Ancestry (http://www.ancestry.com: accessed 2025); citing National Archives Microfilm Publication, Roll 1018, Pages: 20A,20B.
  8. New York State Department of Health, “Laura Phaneuf death entry, 1898,” New York State Death Index, 1880–1956, Ancestry.com, citing Certificate Number 12989; accessed December 18, 2025.
  9. For more information on the profound impacts that high mortality rates had on the 19th-century American family, see Steven Mintz and Susan Kellogg, Domestic Revolutions (New York: Free Press, 1988). They shed light on the experience of child bereavement, including both the psychological impacts of death and the culture of mourning.
  10. 1900 US census, Clinton County, New York, population schedule, Champlain Township, Antoine Fenneff household, dwelling 286 family 286, digital image, Ancestry (http://www.ancestry.com: accessed 2025); citing National Archives Microfilm Publication, Roll 1018, Pages: 20A,20B.
  11. 1910 US census, Clinton County, New York, population schedule, Champlain Township, Antoine Pheneuf household, dwelling 51 family 52, digital image, Ancestry (http://www.ancestry.com:accessed 2025); citing National Archives Microfilm Publication, Roll T624_932, Page: 10A.
  12. For more information on the brutal conditions of the lumber industry, see Philip J. Terrie, Contested Terrain: A New History of Nature and People in the Adirondacks (2008).Terrie describes the Adirondack lumber industry as an “unforgiving environment” where the pressure for productivity in the mills of Northern New York often resulted in the horrific accidents.
  13. “Ski making business flourished in Champlain,” Press-Republican, February 23, 1980, page 6.
  14. “U.S., World War I Draft Registration Cards, 1917–1918,” digital image, Ancestry.com (https://www.ancestry.com : accessed December 18, 2025), entry for George Phaneuf, Clinton County, New York; citing World War I Selective Service System Draft Registration Cards, 1917–1918, NARA microfilm publication M1509, National Archives and Records Administration, Washington, D.C.
  15. “Lumber Co. Landmark in Perry’s Mills,” Plattsburgh Press-Republican, January 27, 1958, page 16.
  16. George Phaneuf and Edith Mesick marriage entry, September 1, 1919, New York State Marriage Index, 1881–1967 [database on-line], Ancestry.com (accessed December 18, 2025); citing New York State Department of Health, Albany, New York.
  17. 1920 US census, Clinton County, New York, population schedule, Champlain Township, Antoine Phaneuf household, dwelling 162 family 163, digital image, Ancestry (http://www.ancestry.com:accessed 2025); citing National Archives Microfilm Publication, Roll T625_1094, Page: 8A.
  18. 1930 US census, Clinton County, New York, population schedule, Champlain Township, George Pheneuf household, dwelling 92 family 93, digital image, Ancestry (http://www.ancestry.com:accessed 2025); citing National Archives Microfilm Publication, Roll 1416, Page: 5A.
  19. For more information on the impact of the Great Depression, see David E. Nye, Hardship and Hope: Rural America During the Depression (New York: Routledge, 1995).
  20. 1940 US census, Clinton County, New York, population schedule, Champlain Township, George Pheneuf household, family 20, digital image, Ancestry (http://www.ancestry.com:accessed 2025); citing National Archives Microfilm Publication, Roll T627_2516, Page: 10B.
  21. Ibid.
  22. Floyd G. Phaneuf entry, enlistment date February 8, 1944, service number 42121414, “U.S., World War II Army Enlistment Records, 1938–1946,”  [database on-line], Ancestry.com (accessed December 18, 2025); citing National Archives and Records Administration.
  23. For more information on the war in the Pacific during WWII, see John Dower, War Without Mercy (New York: Pantheon, 1986).
  24. “31-Year-Old Man Seriously Injured in Mill Accident,” Plattsburgh Press-Republican, December 28, 1946, page 3, column 6.
  25. 1950 US census, Clinton County, New York, population schedule, Champlain Township, George Phenuf household, house 20 dwelling 169, digital image, Ancestry (http://www.ancestry.com:accessed 2025); citing National Archives Microfilm Publication, NAID 43290879, Sheet: 22.
  26. “Floyd G. Phaneuf,” obituary, The Post-Star (Glens Falls, NY), October 16, 1995, B5. To cite the obituary for Kenneth B. Phaneuf from the Press-Republican in Chicago style, use the following formats. Based on the source, this was published on December 9, 2016. “Kenneth B. Phaneuf,” obituary, Press-Republican (Plattsburgh, NY), December 9, 2016, https://obituaries.pressrepublican.com/obituary/kenneth-phaneuf-854148202.
  27. “Obituary,” Plattsburgh Press-Republican, April 16, 1947, page 5, column 8.
  28. Find a Grave, memorial page for Lorena Guerin (1876–1956), Memorial ID 32873721, citing Saint Joseph’s Cemetery, Coopersville, Clinton County, New York; maintained by G.L. LaFontaine (contributor 47472479), accessed December 18, 2025. Lorena Phaneuf Guerin death report, February 24, 1956, in “Reports of Deaths of American Citizens Abroad, 1835–1974,” Record Group 59 (General Records of the Department of State), Entry 205, Box 971, National Archives and Records Administration, Washington, D.C.; accessed December 18, 2025, via Ancestry.com.
  29. Find a Grave, memorial page for Hattie Edith Pheneuf Meseck (1894–1962), Memorial ID 168875409, citing Saint Ann’s Cemetery, Mooers Forks, Clinton County, New York, accessed December 22, 2025. Find a Grave, memorial page for Frank Xavier Phaneuf (1884–1962), Memorial ID 284041423, citing New Saint Mary’s Cemetery, Champlain, Clinton County, New York, accessed December 22, 2025.
  30. “Fire Routs Family of 3,” Plattsburgh Press-Republican, September 4, 1962.
  31. “Mrs. Edith Phaneuf,” obituary, The North Countryman (Rouses Point, NY), November 16, 1967, page 25, columns. 4–5.
  32. “George Phaneuf,” obituary, The North Countryman (Rouses Point, NY), April 30, 1970, page 24, column 5.

Oliver’s Tale

~ Darren Phaneuf ~ Leave a comment
Oliver Lafontaine's grave in Old Saint Mary's Cemetery, Champlain, NY

Oliver Lafontaine’s grave in Old Saint Mary’s Cemetery, Champlain, NY

Source: Find A Grave

If you walk the quiet rows of Champlain’s Old St. Mary’s Cemetery atop Prospect Hill, the wind slips unhindered through old stones softened by time. Among the stones lies the grave of Oliver Lafontaine.1 Oliver’s is a substantial monument—confident in its presence, firmly set, and deeply carved. Across its face stands the name LAFONTAINE, and beneath it the proud inscription, “Sgt. Co. H. 60. Rgt. N.Y.V. Inf.” Before one even sees the dates, the stone declares what mattered most: he was once a soldier.2 That identity, formed in the smoke, hunger, cold, and fear of the Civil War, shaped the long decades of life that followed, and it is the truest doorway into understanding the man buried beneath the Champlain earth.

Oliver was born in Champlain on June 17, 1844, into a household tied to the movement of water and the rhythms of the lake. His father, John Lafontaine, had come from Canada and worked as a sailor on Lake Champlain, appearing in mid-century records as a boatman—a trade that required strength, stamina, and the willingness to live by the demands of wind, weather, and commerce. His mother, Catherine Roberts, kept the household anchored as children arrived one after another: William and John first, then Oliver, then Joseph, and finally an infant, Antoine, who appeared in the 1850 census. The Lafontaines lived among a French-speaking, cross-border culture that gave northern Clinton County its distinctive character—Catholic parishes, seasonal migration, mixed households of Canadian and New York birth, and economic life tied to farms, lake’s channels, and distant cities. This quality was underscored by their neighbor, Louis Lafontaine–John’s Canadian-born brother and also a sailor.3

The Lafontaine family in 1850

Source: 1850 US census, Clinton County, New York, population schedule, Champlain Township.

Loss was woven into the early years for the Lafontaine family. Baby Antoine died in 1851; a daughter, Marie, born the same year as Antoine’s passing, also died in 1853. Such tragedies were common in the mid 19th century—cholera infantum, scarlet fever, dysentery, and pneumonia took young lives with stunning speed—but their emotional effects were intimate, reshaping families from within. Children grew up with the memory of siblings who did not survive; parents held grief while continuing to work and raise those who remained. Despite the loss, life marched on.

By 1860, sixteen-year-old Oliver lived in a home led by John, a boatman on the lake. The lake shaped the family’s work rhythms, diet, household, and social networks in ways that set them apart from the largely farming families of the area. The Lafontaines possessed no real or personal wealth in the census, suggesting they hovered economically between stability and precarity.4 John’s work on the lake would have been subject to the weather in an area where winters were long and income could evaporate with ice. In such circumstances, the regional economy produced young men accustomed to uncertainty and therefore unusually prepared for the decision that confronted them in 1861.

When the Civil War erupted in the spring of 1861, it was eldest son William who enlisted first on September 21, 1861 when he joined Company H of the 60th New York Infantry, a regiment forming at Ogdensburg with companies drawn from northern counties stretching from Malone to Champlain.5 The company reflected the social world the Lafontaine boys knew intimately: Champlain, Mooers, Ellenburgh, Altona, Chazy, and nearby towns were represented heavily in its ranks.6 One did not march into war among strangers but among neighbors, cousins, coworkers, the sons of parish families, and French Canadian migrants of a shared world.7

Oliver, only seventeen, watched William prepare to leave and refused to be left behind. Within a month—on October 21, 1861—he joined his brother in the very same company.8 Their names appeared together in enrollment tables and would remain paired in pay records, muster rolls, and casualty reports for years to come. In Champlain, their simultaneous enlistment confirmed what military historians repeatedly observe: that early-war volunteering often flowed through familial and neighborhood networks. The actions of the Lafontaine brothers reflected the patterns that defined Union enlistment culture as a whole during the early war.

The brothers and their comrades left New York on November 4, 1861, and spent the winter guarding the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad between Baltimore and Washington.9 For two young men raised in the rural borderlands of northern New York, army camp life must have been both thrilling and unsettling. Their introduction to military service was harsh: a measles outbreak in December 1861 afflicted more than 100 men.10

Although the boys wouldn’t have written to their parents (who reported on the census that they could not read or write), we know that the connection between the war front and home remained strong. The February 15, 1862 edition of the Plattsburgh Republican reported nine Champlain soldiers from Company H sending money home to their families; among those listed was Oliver sending $15 and William sending $8.11 That small line, nestled among the names of neighbors, captures the fluid duality of early service: boys gone to war, yet still part of the household economy; absent, yet still helping their family.

Illness in August 1862 left only a handful of officers to command Oliver’s regiment

Source: O’Sullivan, Timothy H, photographer. Fauquier Sulphur Springs, Virginia. Officers of the 60th New York Volunteers. United States, 1862. Aug. Photograph. https://www.loc.gov/item/2018671756/.

Their war changed quickly in the spring of 1862 when the regiment moved into the Shenandoah Valley under General Frémont and faced several probing Confederate detachments. Recalled to Pope’s Army of Virginia soon after, they found themselves confronted not only by maneuver warfare but by renewed sickness. By late July, a surge of typhus fever had sickened 140 men of the 60th New York. In early August, the regiment was sent to Fauquier White Sulphur Springs in hopes that its mineral waters might restore the sick. By August 15, the regimental surgeon reported 350 men battling typhus indoors and another 50–60 confined to tents with lesser symptoms.12 We do not know whether Oliver or William fell ill, but the infection rate makes it likely they were either sick themselves or carrying the burdens of those who were.

By September the regiment was on the mend and joined the army that was confronting Robert E. Lee’s invasion of Maryland. At Antietam on September 17, 1862, Oliver and his comrades advanced with Greene’s division toward the West Woods, entering a landscape already choked with smoke and confusion. Crossing ground littered with the casualties of earlier fighting, they pushed into the woods where visibility dropped to yards and command structure quickly frayed. The regiment helped drive Confederate lines backward in the initial assault, but momentum came at a cost: they soon found themselves isolated, exposed to fire from multiple directions. When Confederate reinforcements struck the flank, the regiment’s colonel—commanding the brigade—fell mortally wounded and the 60th New York withdrew toward the main Union line, having lost nearly a third of the men it carried into the fight.13 For Oliver, it was likely a blur of shouted orders, rolling volleys, and the eerie disorientation veterans later described as the emotional core of Antietam.

Chancellorsville and Gettysburg in 1863 carried Oliver, William, and the 60th New York through two more of the war’s most disorienting campaigns, battles remembered today for their sweeping maneuvers but experienced by men like him only in fragments—shouts, smoke, and the sudden rush of orders that could reverse direction in an instant. At Chancellorsville in May 1863, Oliver would have marched into tangled woods alive with the constant crack of skirmish fire, where the undergrowth swallowed whole companies and visibility collapsed into a few yards of shifting silhouettes. He would not have known the larger plan, only that the fighting surged unpredictably, that the regiment took heavy losses, and that even seasoned officers seemed shaken by the ferocity of the Confederate assaults. By the time the battle was over, sixty-six more men in the 60th were casualties.14 Two months later at Gettysburg, the 60th was thrown onto the rocky, timbered slopes of Culp’s Hill—ground that offered protection only if held firmly and punished any faltering. For Oliver, the battle came as a long stretch of tense hours behind hastily built earthworks, punctuated by sudden eruptions of musketry when the enemy pushed through the trees. He would have heard the shouted commands to hold the line, the thump of artillery somewhere beyond the hill, and the eerie pauses when both sides lay low among the rocks, waiting for the next push. When daylight finally broke on July 3rd and the Confederate attacks faded, Oliver emerged from the trenches knowing only that his regiment had survived another trial and that fifty-five friends he had eaten, marched, and joked with were casualties.15 Whatever newspapers or historians later made of Chancellorsville’s brilliance or Gettysburg’s turning-point significance, Oliver’s memories would have likely been rooted in cramped quarters, dense woods, long night watches, and the sobering count of men like Champlain-native Philetus Ayers did not answer roll call the next morning.16

Oliver and the 60th underwent a change of scenery when the XII Corps was transferred west to support the Army of the Cumberland. They fought at Wauhatchie and then entered the Chattanooga Campaign, where the regiment’s role would place Oliver in the thick of his most defining moment. The “Battle Above the Clouds,” as newspapers and veterans called it, acquired a mythic character in postwar memory, but for the men on the slopes that day, it was anything but romantic. It began in darkness, before dawn on November 24, 1863, when the 60th New York received orders to fall in with one day’s rations, no knapsacks, no blankets, and to move towards ascending a looming mass of a mountain deemed as “impregnable.”17

The challenging terrain on Lookout Mountain tackled by Oliver in November 1863

The challenging terrain on Lookout Mountain tackled by Oliver in November 1863

Source: Chattanooga, Tenn., vicinity. Summit of Lookout Mountain. Chattanooga Tennessee United States, 1864. [?] Photograph. https://www.loc.gov/item/2018666961/.

The air thickened with fog as they marched toward Lookout Creek. They crossed in dim morning light, boots slipping on slick stones, the sound of the current swallowed by mist. Once across, the ascent began immediately. The terrain was punishing—dense spruce undergrowth, fallen timber, and jagged boulders forced the regiment upward in a staggered, straining line. At times they scrambled; at others they pulled themselves upward hand over hand, the mountain seeming almost to resist their passage. Hours into the climb, skirmish fire crackled in the fog as Confederate pickets were encountered. The regiment halted only briefly before orders came to press on. Then, in the moment preserved in the 60th’s regimental history, they fixed bayonets and surged forward “with a shout such as only Yankees can give,” overrunning an unfinished Confederate earthwork before defenders could mount an organized stand. By early afternoon, Oliver and the 60th had climbed nearly three miles and secured their objective.18

The toll of the ascent became clear only when the firing ceased. One Champlain man, George Mayo, was killed; two others—Alexander Hubbell and Sidney Rider—were wounded.19 Though not recorded in the regimental narrative, Oliver later reported that he, too, was wounded at Lookout Mountain, a detail preserved only in terse military records. The circumstances of his injury—like so many battlefield wounds—were lost to the larger chaos of the campaign. Yet what is known matters: despite the wound, the cold, and the months of relentless marching, he reenlisted on December 11, 1863, as a veteran volunteer.20 His decision mirrors patterns noted by historians of reenlistment: hardened identity, loyalty to comrades, community expectations, and the economic realities facing working-class northern men.21

The regiment received veteran furlough in the winter and then returned to the field in early 1864 as part of Sherman’s XX Corps. William and Oliver marched together once more through that spring and summer, advancing through the Atlanta Campaign—Resaca, New Hope Church, Peachtree Creek—battles marked by maneuver, heat, constant skirmishing, and attrition.22 These were not the spectacular engagements of the Eastern Theater; they were grinding, methodical, and deadly. The brothers who had enlisted in 1861 were now seasoned veterans, intimately familiar with exhaustion, deprivation, and the tightening grip of the war’s final years.

A lithograph showing the prison where William was sent in 1864

Source: T. Sinclair’s Lith., Publisher, and John Burns Walker. Andersonville prison. Georgia / Sketched by John Burns Walker, Co. G, 41st Regt. P.V.I. Georgia Andersonville United States, ca. 1864. Phila.: T. Sinclair’s lith. Photograph. https://www.loc.gov/item/2003662359/.

In March 1864, the brothers’ paths diverged in a way neither could have predicted. William was captured and taken first to Andersonville, the most infamous prison of the Confederacy. There he endured starvation rations, disease, filth, exposure, and the daily sight of men dying around him. His survival was based on  physical toughness and a stroke of luck. From Andersonville he was transferred to the prison at Florence, South Carolina, where conditions were scarcely better. The war had seized him in the most brutal way; when asked in 1866 to describe his experiences, William reported he “suffered all the tortures that starvation can give.”23

The war’s toll deepened for the Lafontaine family in 1864. First William disappeared into Confederate captivity, and then the conflict reached toward John, Oliver’s other older brother. John had enlisted in Company H of the 11th New York Cavalry in March 1862 and spent two years riding patrols around Washington, D.C., before the regiment was sent to the Department of the Gulf in the spring of 1864.24 The change of climate proved deadly. Disease coursed through the camps with a relentlessness the cavalry could not outrun, and by late autumn John—now a Quartermaster Sergeant—was sick enough to be ordered north to recover. He boarded the steamship North America in New Orleans with more than two hundred other convalescents bound for Washington. But on the night of December 22, off the coast of northern Florida, a violent gale rose out of the darkness. The new ship sprang a forward leak, and despite frantic efforts to save her, she foundered in the storm.25 Nearly two hundred soldiers drowned, John among them. For his family in Champlain, the loss arrived only as a distant notice—death without a body, grief without a grave, and yet another echo of the war’s reach into their household.

Recovered from the wound received at Lookout Mountain, Oliver continued with the 60th New York Infantry. He was promoted to corporal on September 10, 1864 shortly before the regiment marched with Sherman across Georgia. His youngest brother, Joseph, enlisted in early 1865, but was assigned duty on the Canadian border. Oliver, meanwhile, continued to face risks as the army marched north through the Carolinas to the final battles of the spring of 1865. When the 60th New York entered Washington for the Grand Review, Oliver was among the men who marched down Pennsylvania Avenue in the triumph of armies that had known more hardship than celebration. Shortly thereafter, Oliver was promoted sergeant on June 22, 1865, before being mustered out of the service on July 17, 1865.26

Oliver returned home to Champlain in 1865 carrying wounds, memories, and the invisible weight of one brother who had suffered and another who had never returned. In July 1866 he married Zoe Cardin, a Champlain native whose family, like many in the area, was tied to the French Canadian communities across the border.27 Their nine children arrived across the next two decades: Oliver Jr., Mary Agnes, Albert, John Baptiste, Guillaume, Augustus, Joseph Adelard, Zoa Alica, and Catherine.28 When the state census taker visited the family in 1892, Oliver and Zoe had a bustling household still filled with seven children.29 Eldest son Oliver had begun his own life by that point, and the family had already mourned the death of infant Guillaume in 1878. The early 1890s would prove difficult for the family, however, as they grappled with the death of both Joseph on December 16, 1893 and Zoa on February 24, 1895.30 Like so many other families, the rhythm of domestic life from the 1870s through 1900 swung between joyful events such as births and baptisms to challenges such as winter scarcity and funerals. 

After the war, Oliver’s working life unfolded almost entirely on the water. The 1870 census captured him as a ‘Captain Lake Boat,’ and later enumerations alternately called him a sailor or boatman—labels that obscured the continuity of a decades-long career on Lake Champlain. He likely hauled numerous products and navigated a lake economy that depended on timing, skill, and annual cycles of freeze and thaw. The 1892 census offers a glimpse of his community: six neighbors worked as boatbuilders, and his cousin Louis served as a pilot, forming a small maritime world tied to the lake’s seasonal demands. By 1900, Oliver reported five months of unemployment—almost certainly the winter freeze that halted navigation entirely—an annual rhythm familiar to Champlain boatmen across generations.31

The opening years of the twentieth century brought a cascade of losses to Oliver and Zoe. His father John’s death in 1902 marked the first rupture, followed by the passing of Oliver’s mother, Catherine, in February 1906.32 That fall, another blow struck the family when their eldest daughter, Mary Agnes, died at just thirty-six, leaving seven young children motherless with the youngest, Florence, just weeks old when Mary passed. These bereavements accumulated, shaping a period in which private grief repeatedly unsettled the household.33 Then, in 1910, Oliver confronted a loss that reached back into the defining experiences of his youth. William—his eldest brother and comrade in the 60th New York Infantry—died in May. The local newspaper emphasized both William’s war-time ordeal and the enduring ties among the brothers:

“Wm. Lafontaine… languished for several months in the Andersonville prison and his health had been so impaired that he could never have reached home at the close of the war without the assistance of the late Louis Brassard… The latter [Oliver] left here Friday morning to visit his brother in his last illness, but found him dead upon reaching Springfield.”34

More than four decades after the war, memories of William’s suffering in Andersonville remained vivid in the community’s memory. For Oliver, those memories were not abstract history but lived experience as the bonds forged in childhood and reaffirmed in the crucible of battle still held. Even in his mid-sixties, he made the long journey to Springfield, MA hoping to see his brother one last time. 

The same year of William’s death saw the census taken once more visit the Lafontaine family. A decade earlier, Oliver and Zoe were listed as renters, but now they could report that they owned their home free of mortgage, anchoring them more firmly than ever in the community that had shaped their entire lives. When asked about his Civil War service, Oliver did not hesitate—he told the enumerator that he had served in the Union Army, a quiet affirmation that the defining experience of his youth still mattered in his old age. The census also revealed how deeply the Lafontaine commitment to family endured. Oliver and Zoe were sharing their home with their son Augustus and their daughter Catherine, and under their roof was a final reminder of Mary’s too-short life: little Florence, their “adopted daughter,” only three years old, whom they were raising after Mary’s death in childbirth.35

Oliver’s last appearance in any census

Source: 1925 New York State census, Clinton County, New York, population schedule, Champlain Township.

Before the next census visit, Oliver would have to absorb loss once more–this time it was his wife of more than fifty years, Zoe.36 In his final appearance in a census, the widowed Oliver is found living on Elm Street in the village with his youngest daughter Catherine and her growing family, an elderly veteran carried into his final years by the long continuity of kin networks that defined French Canadian families in the region.37

Oliver died on July 5, 1928, at the age of eighty-four, one of the last remaining Civil War veterans in Champlain. By then the world that had formed him was fading. The wooden schooners on the lake were disappearing; the French-speaking population of Champlain was shifting; the veterans’ parades were thinning each year. But his stone at St. Mary’s remained—and remains—firm, unweathered in its essential lines, declaring his name and his service. “Sgt. Co. H. 60. Rgt. N.Y.V. Inf.” It is not simply a summary; it is a summation of a life in which the Civil War was the crucible, the defining fire through which everything else passed.38

Endnotes

  1. For consistency across this tale, I have opted to use the Lafontaine family name. Various records will show the name as Lafountain, Lafountaine, and other variations. I have made the same decision for first names; for example, Oliver’s father is sometimes seen as the following: John, Jean, Jean-Baptiste.
  2. Find a Grave, memorial page for Oliver LaFontaine (1829–1915), Memorial ID 96892265, citing Old Saint Mary’s Cemetery, Champlain, Clinton County, New York; accessed December 6, 2025.
  3. 1850 US census, Clinton County, New York, population schedule, Champlain Township, John Lafontaine household, dwelling 3219 family 3458, digital image, Ancestry (http://www.ancestry.com: accessed 2025); citing National Archives Microfilm Publication, Roll 490, Page: 477b.
  4. 1860 US census, Clinton County, New York, population schedule, Champlain Township, John Lafontaine household, dwelling 885 family 933, digital image, Ancestry (http://www.ancestry.com: accessed 2025); citing National Archives Microfilm Publication, Roll 653_736, Page: 698.
  5. William Lafountain, Champlain Town Clerks’ Registers of Men Who Served in the Civil War, ca. 1861–1865, Collection (N-Ar)13774, Box 12, Roll 8, New York State Archives, Albany.
  6. New York State Division of Military and Naval Affairs Museum, “60th Regiment Infantry Civil War Roster,” PDF, accessed December 6, 2025, https://museum.dmna.ny.gov/application/files/7315/5068/2210/60th_Infantry_CW_Roster.pdf.
  7. For more information on motivations of early Civil War volunteers, see Reid Mitchell, The Vacant Chair: The Northern Soldier Leaves Home (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), esp. pp. 44–52 on motivations of working-class enlistees; Maris A. Vinovskis, “Have Social Historians Lost the Civil War? Some Preliminary Demographic Speculations,” in Toward a Social History of the American Civil War: Exploratory Essays, ed. Vinovskis (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 6–12.
  8. Oliver Lafountain, Champlain Town Clerks’ Registers of Men Who Served in the Civil War, ca. 1861–1865, Collection (N-Ar)13774, Box 12, Roll 8, New York State Archives, Albany.
  9. Richard Eddy, History of the Sixtieth Regiment New York State Volunteers, from the Commencement of Its Organization to the Close of the Civil War (Philadelphia: D. O. Haynes & Co., 1864), 46-72, https://archive.org/details/historyofsixtiet00eddy/page/360/mode/2up.
  10. Ibid., 65 and 142.
  11. Plattsburgh Republican, February 15, 1862, 2.
  12. Eddy, History of the Sixtieth Regiment, 142, 158.
  13. Ibid., 172-182.
  14. Ibid., 243-246.
  15. Ibid., 259-264.
  16. Ibid., 278.
  17. Ibid., 305.
  18. Ibid., 306-308.
  19. Ibid., 309.
  20. Oliver Lafountain, Champlain Town Clerks’ Registers of Men Who Served in the Civil War, ca. 1861–1865, Collection (N-Ar)13774, Box 12, Roll 8, New York State Archives, Albany.
  21. See Mitchell, The Vacant Chair; Vinovskis, “Have Social Historians Lost the Civil War?” for more information on reenlistment influences and demographic constraints among veteran volunteers.
  22. Frederick Phisterer, New York in the War of the Rebellion, 3rd ed. (Albany: J. B. Lyon Company, 1912), 1:306–7.
  23. William Lafountain, Champlain Town Clerks’ Registers of Men Who Served in the Civil War, ca. 1861–1865, Collection (N-Ar)13774, Box 12, Roll 8, New York State Archives, Albany.
  24. John Lafountain, Champlain Town Clerks’ Registers of Men Who Served in the Civil War, ca. 1861–1865, Collection (N-Ar)13774, Box 12, Roll 8, New York State Archives, Albany.
  25. New York Times, January 24, 1865, reprinting an article from the New-Orleans Times, January 12, 1865; quoted in “1864 — Dec 22, U.S. Steam transport North America sinks,” Deadliest American Disasters and Large-Loss-of-Life Events, accessed December 4, 2025, https://www.usdeadlyevents.com/1864-dec-22-u-s-steam-transport-north-america-sinks-storm-off-coast-of-north-fl-197/.
  26. Oliver Lafountain, Champlain Town Clerks’ Registers of Men Who Served in the Civil War, ca. 1861–1865, Collection (N-Ar)13774, Box 12, Roll 8, New York State Archives, Albany. Joseph Lafountain, Champlain Town Clerks’ Registers of Men Who Served in the Civil War, ca. 1861–1865, Collection (N-Ar)13774, Box 12, Roll 8, New York State Archives, Albany.
  27. 1900 US census, Clinton County, New York, population schedule, Champlain Township, Oliver Lafontaine household, dwelling 152 family 152, digital image, Ancestry (http://www.ancestry.com: accessed 2025); citing National Archives Microfilm Publication, Roll 1018, Page: 11.
  28. 1870 US census, Clinton County, New York, population schedule, Champlain Township, Oliver Lafontaine household, dwelling 291 family 297, digital image, Ancestry (http://www.ancestry.com: accessed 2025); citing National Archives Microfilm Publication, Roll M593_918, Page: 172A. 1880 US census, Clinton County, New York, population schedule, Champlain Township, Oliver Lafontaine household, dwelling 78 family 78, digital image, Ancestry (http://www.ancestry.com: accessed 2025); citing National Archives Microfilm Publication, Roll 819, Page: 153b.
  29. 1892 New York state census, Clinton County, New York, population schedule, Champlain Township, Oliver Lafontaine household, page 14, digital image, Ancestry (http://www.ancestry.com: accessed 2025).
  30. Find a Grave, memorial page for Oliver LaFontaine (1829–1915), Memorial ID 96892265, citing Old Saint Mary’s Cemetery, Champlain, Clinton County, New York; accessed December 6, 2025.
  31. 1870 US census, Clinton County, New York, population schedule, Champlain Township, Oliver Lafontaine household, dwelling 291 family 297, digital image, Ancestry (http://www.ancestry.com: accessed 2025); citing National Archives Microfilm Publication, Roll M593_918, Page: 172A. 1880 US census, Clinton County, New York, population schedule, Champlain Township, Oliver Lafontaine household, dwelling 78 family 78, digital image, Ancestry (http://www.ancestry.com: accessed 2025); citing National Archives Microfilm Publication, Roll 819, Page: 153b. 1900 US census, Clinton County, New York, population schedule, Champlain Township, Oliver Lafontaine household, dwelling 152 family 152, digital image, Ancestry (http://www.ancestry.com: accessed 2025); citing National Archives Microfilm Publication, Roll 1018, Page: 11.
  32. New York State Department of Health, “John B. Lafountain death entry, 1902,” New York State Death Index, 1880–1956, Ancestry.com, citing Certificate Number 12928; accessed December 7, 2025. New York State Department of Health, “Catherine Lafountain death entry, 1906,” New York State Death Index, 1880–1956, Ancestry.com, citing Certificate Number 8261; accessed December 7, 2025.
  33. 1905 New York state census, Clinton County, New York, population schedule, Champlain Township, Napoleon Babeau household, page 20, digital image, Ancestry (http://www.ancestry.com: accessed 2025). New York State Department of Health, “Agnes Babaw death entry, 1906,” New York State Death Index, 1880–1956, Ancestry.com, citing Certificate Number 48989; accessed December 7, 2025.
  34. “Budget of Champlain News,” The Plattsburgh Sentinel, May 13, 1910, 2, col. 3.
  35. 1910 US census, Clinton County, New York, population schedule, Champlain Township, Oliver Lafontaine household, dwelling 199 family 204, digital image, Ancestry (http://www.ancestry.com: accessed 2025); citing National Archives Microfilm Publication, Roll T624_932, Page: 16b.
  36. New York State Department of Health, “Zoe Lafontaine death entry, 1919,” New York State Death Index, 1880–1956, Ancestry.com, citing Certificate Number 32762; accessed December 7, 2025.
  37. 1925 New York state census, Clinton County, New York, population schedule, Champlain Township, Saul Cardin household, page 6, digital image, Ancestry (http://www.ancestry.com: accessed 2025).
  38. Find a Grave, memorial page for Oliver LaFontaine (1829–1915), Memorial ID 96892265, citing Old Saint Mary’s Cemetery, Champlain, Clinton County, New York; accessed December 6, 2025.

Frederick’s Tale

~ Darren Phaneuf ~ Leave a comment

Frederick Fitch’s grave in Maple Hill Cemetery, Champlain, NY

Source: author’s personal collection

Frederick Fitch’s grave lies tucked away in Maple Hill Cemetery on a small rise bordered by the steady hum of traffic along a state highway in Champlain, New York. There he rests beside his wife, their unadorned markers recording only their names and years, the brief inscriptions fading beneath lichen and age. Nothing in those simple inscriptions suggests the long journey that brought them to Champlain from New England or the changing rural world through which they passed. Yet Frederick’s life traces the broader story of many men born in the closing years of the eighteenth century—men who cleared new farms, raised families on uncertain land, and labored through the slow transformation of nineteenth-century America.

Frederick Fitch was born when the young American republic was still defining its ideals. He came into the world in Coventry, Connecticut, on February 27, 1785, the son of John and Anna Fitch—four years before the adoption of the Constitution by the United States. His father, a veteran of the Revolutionary War, was the youngest son in a world where younger sons faced challenges. Primogeniture, though legally weakened after the Revolution, remained powerful in custom, still steering land toward eldest sons and forcing younger ones to find their own path. Historian Paul E. Johnson has described the moral and social pressure this created among New England farmers: “New England men…grew up confronting two uncomfortable facts. The first was the immense value their culture placed on land ownership… the second was that in the late eighteenth century increasing numbers of men owned no land.”1 As Johnson’s observation suggests, opportunity was scarce in older towns. In Coventry’s population of 2,130 in 1790, younger men like John Fitch had little chance of securing a homestead. By 1800, he had moved his family, including 15-year-old Frederick, to Chittenden County, Vermont, where he was documented as farming his own land by 1820.2 John also served as a constable and justice of the peace—a man who had fought for the nation’s creation and then returned home to uphold its laws.3 For men like John Fitch, landownership was both the reward and the proof of independence. In the agrarian imagination of early America, land was not merely property; it was the moral foundation of citizenship.

By the time Frederick reached adulthood, he faced the same challenge his father had known: farmland in Vermont was dwindling, and his older brother, John, would eventually inherit the family farm. In the early nineteenth century, the quest for land drew New England’s sons westward and northward in search of independence and opportunity. The frontier, once bounded by the Hudson River, had shifted into the Adirondack borderlands and the northern reaches of New York, Vermont, and Maine—regions whose forests and meadows offered the independence that New England’s settled towns could no longer provide.4 

Frederick’s own journey followed that course. On February 10, 1813, at age twenty-seven, he married Nancy Bunker in Huntington, Vermont, one of the mountain towns that had flourished during the state’s post-Revolutionary settlement boom.5 Their early years were likely marked by hardship and hope in equal measure. By the time their first children—Adaline, Theodore, and Henry—were born before 1816, the couple was looking toward the Champlain Valley. By 1820, Frederick and Nancy followed his older brother Solomon across the lake to settle in Champlain, a swiftly expanding agricultural settlement at Clinton County’s northern extremity on the Canadian border.6

Champlain was a frontier town in transition when Frederick arrived. Between 1810 and 1820, its population exploded from 1,210 residents to 1,618—a 34% increase in a single decade.7 Roads were poor, and winters severe, but the land was cheap and fertile, and for men like Frederick, that was enough. In the 1820 census, he appears as a farmer, head of a household of five, with two members “engaged in agriculture.”8 It was the modest beginning of a dream that had defined generations: the transformation of wilderness into home.

To the modern reader, the phrase “independent farmer” may evoke pastoral simplicity, but in the 1820s it carried a dense web of moral, religious, and political meaning as well. The value of a freehold farm extended well beyond its acres; it sustained a moral order that defined a man’s autonomy, his role within the family, and his place in the republican nation. For men like Frederick, these ideals were not abstractions but the framework of daily life. Independence meant steady labor. His children grew alongside the farm, contributing their hands to the cycles of planting and harvest. By 1830, nine people lived in the household—parents, sons, and daughters—forming the core of the agricultural workforce centered in the household. By 1840, that number had grown to eleven. Their daily lives would have followed the rhythm of the northern seasons: clearing fields in spring, haying and harvesting through summer and fall, and enduring long winters of mending tools, carding wool, and cutting firewood.9

The Fitch household in 1850 that included Frederick, Nancy, and their children and daughter-in-law Sarah

The Fitch household in 1850 that included Frederick, Nancy, and their children and daughter-in-law Sarah

Source: 1850 US census, Clinton County, New York, population schedule, Champlain Township.

By the 1850s, the family’s long years of labor had matured into a measure of stability—even as the rural world around them was beginning to shift.10 The 1850 federal census records a nine-person household ranging in age from 14 to 65: Frederick (65) and his wife Nancy (58); their son Henry (34) and his wife Sarah (27); sons Charles (27), Frederick Jr. (20), and John (16); and daughters Abigail (24) and Louisa (14). Four men in the household—Frederick, Henry, Charles, and Frederick Jr.—were listed as farmers, a concentration of adult male labor that helps explain the family’s relative prosperity. The farm itself was valued at $4,000, a substantial figure for Clinton County and one notably above the Champlain township average of $2,763.11 

The 1850 agricultural census reveals a farm organized with care and conscious balance. Fitch’s one hundred acre operation—eighty acres improved and twenty in woodlot or pasture—placed him in roughly the upper 40% of Champlain farms by size. His ratio of improved to unimproved land was notably more intensive than the township average (seventy-five improved to fifty-six unimproved), indicating a farm more fully cleared and actively cultivated than most of his neighbors’. This level of improvement likely reflects the presence of four adult men in the household, whose labor made such sustained clearing and cultivation possible. Fitch’s livestock holdings further point to a diversified and comparatively prosperous enterprise. With three horses, seven milk cows, seven other cattle, and thirty sheep, the Fitch herd exceeded local averages in every category except horses, marking the family as part of the township’s substantial middle tier of agricultural producers.12

The presence of sheep offers another window into the household economy of the Fitch farm. Of the 220 farmers in Champlain in 1850, 166 (roughly 75%) kept sheep. Frederick’s flock of thirty placed his household in the top 15% of owners with wool production even higher. Maintaining such a sizable flock was a deliberate choice enabled by the household economy fueled by the women who traditionally bore responsibility for wool processing and textile preparation. Wool production would have provided the Fitch family with yet another commodity for exchange, one that could be bartered for skilled services such as blacksmithing or coopering. In this way, the flock reflects not only household capability but also the family’s strategic engagement with the local economy.13

The farm’s cropping pattern likewise reflects a household transitioning from self-sufficient yeomanry to active participants in a changing market economy. Of the 220 farms in Champlain, all but sixteen harvested wheat in 1850; even in this near-universal crop, the Fitch family’s yield of 170 bushels placed them within the top 15% of local producers. Their 250 bushels of oats similarly exceeded the town average, ranking them in roughly the top 20%. In butter and cheese production, however, the Fitch household reached its highest standing: their butter output placed them among the top 10% of producers in Champlain, while their cheese production ranked in the top 16%—almost certainly the result once more of a household economy driven by the Fitch women.14 In practical terms, the family not only sustained itself comfortably but also produced surpluses for sale, revealing their growing engagement with the market economy.

1856 map of Champlain showing the location of the Fitch farm nearby to the railroad and Canadian border

1856 map of Champlain showing the location of the Fitch farm nearby to the railroad and Canadian border

Source: Ligowsky, A. Map of Clinton Co., New York. Philadelphia: O.J. Lamb, 1856. Map. https://www.loc.gov/item/2009583837/.

As Frederick achieved independence, the world around him was changing. By the 1850s, upstate New York was no longer the frontier. The Ogdensburg and Lake Champlain Railroad, with its eastern terminus ending in Champlain within sight of the Fitch farm, connected the farmlands of northern New York to rapidly growing cities in the northeast and southern Canada.15 Market integration was transforming the region, binding farmers to distant prices and urban demand. The ideal of the self-sufficient yeoman was giving way to the reality of a competitive market economy as the expanding Midwest and improved rail transport flooded eastern markets with cheaper grain, forcing smallholders to specialize or scale back.16

The broader regional trends became more visible in the 1860 census, where the value of Fitch’s farm had declined modestly to $3,500 from $4,000 a decade earlier. More significant than the decrease in land value, however, was the contraction of the household itself. By 1860, only four people remained at home: Frederick and Nancy, along with two of their sons, Charles and Frederick Jr. As sons and daughters married or moved away to establish their own households, the loss of labor—particularly the women who had supported dairying and textile production—caused the farm’s outputs to align more closely with township averages in both livestock and crop yields. The number of horses fell from three to two, and milk cows from seven to four. The sheep flock, which had numbered thirty in 1850, had fallen to five, a clear sign that the labor-intensive wool work could no longer be sustained.17 This change also reflected broader economic shifts: as textile production became increasingly industrialized in New England, the Fitch family would no longer rely on household wool as a viable commodity for trade.

In nearly every respect, Fitch’s production now fell slightly below Champlain’s township averages. His crop yields tell the same story: thirty-six bushels of wheat (compared to a town average of forty-six), forty of corn (below the average of sixty-nine), and 500 of oats (somewhat above the typical 436). The continued emphasis on oats may indicate a pragmatic shift toward fodder crops to support a reduced herd rather than a focus on commercial grain sales. His potato harvest (100 bushels, against a local mean of 182) and his butter production (400 pounds, compared to a township average of 380)—further reflect a scaled-back operation aimed at subsistence with limited surplus. Together, these figures depict a farm adjusting to diminishing household labor and the aging of its patriarch, rather than one actively expanding or seeking profit in an increasingly competitive agricultural economy.18

Such contraction was not unusual. Across the North, aging farmers often found themselves unable to keep pace with the accelerating modernization of agriculture. Mechanization, improved plows, reapers, and threshers, and new market-oriented breeds favored younger men with capital and ambition. The decline in Fitch’s equipment value (from $100 in 1850 to $75 in 1860) illustrates this generational divide.19 Frederick was nearing the end of his working life, still maintaining the land that had sustained his family for more than four decades, but now doing so on a reduced scale. His two sons almost certainly managed the physically demanding work their father could no longer perform.20

Seen through the 1860 census, the Fitch farm captures a pivotal moment in the transformation of northern agriculture: a household that had begun in the spirit of yeoman self-sufficiency now operated within an increasingly integrated market economy. No longer was the household economy a primary driver in decision making. The adjustments visible in Frederick’s final decade—the contraction of livestock, shifts in cropping patterns, a move toward selective specialization, and a smaller household—suggest not simple decline but a farmer responding pragmatically to changing prices, labor shortages, and regional competition while his family aged and began to seek out their own opportunities. Even late in life, Frederick was not merely enduring agricultural change but negotiating it, adapting his practices to the new economic currents reshaping rural New York.

The 1860 census showed Frederick’s household shortly before he passed away in July 1860

Source: 1860 US census, Clinton County, New York, population schedule, Champlain Township.

By the time Frederick died in Champlain on July 27, 1860, at the age of 75, the society he had helped build was giving way to a new one. The Civil War loomed, ushering in an age of industrialization, urban growth, and restless movement that favored younger men better positioned to adopt the increasingly capital-intensive practices reshaping American agriculture. Some pressed farther west, pursuing the same agrarian dream that had once brought Frederick to the Champlain frontier—a chance to own land, raise a family, and live by their labor. Viewed through census data and agricultural returns, Fitch’s life may appear ordinary, yet within those numbers lies the story of a man whose choices reflected the broader economic transformation of the American countryside. To read Frederick’s story is to glimpse a central thread in the American experience: the enduring search for rootedness in a world of movement. That legacy endures in Champlain today, where the Fitch farm remains in the hands of his descendants—a rare continuity in a region where most family farms have long since vanished.

Endnotes

  1. Paul E. Johnson, “The Modernization of Mayo Greenleaf Patch: Land, Family, and Marginality in New England, 1766–1818,” The New England Quarterly 55, no. 4 (December 1982): 489–490.
  2. 1800 US census, Chittenden County, Vermont, population schedule, Huntington Township, page 1, John Fitch household, digital image, Ancestry (http://www.ancestry.com: accessed 2025); citing National Archives Microfilm Publication M32, Roll 51. 1820 US census, Chittenden County, Vermont, population schedule, Huntington Township, page 1, John Fitch household, digital image, Ancestry (http://www.ancestry.com: accessed 2025); citing National Archives Microfilm Publication M33, Roll 127.
  3. “Chittenden County,” The Vergennes Gazette and Vermont and New-York Advertiser (Vergennes, Vermont, USA), November 1, 1798, 3, https://www.newspapers.com/.
  4. See Alan Taylor, Liberty Men and Great Proprietors: The Revolutionary Settlement on the Maine Frontier, 1760–1820 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1990) for an overview of frontier settlement in the early republic. Taylor focuses on Maine but highlights the moral as well as economic motives for migration.
  5. “Nancy Bunker,” entry in “Geneanet Community Trees Index” 2022, Ancestry (http://www.ancestry.com: accessed 2025), record 7821956846.
  6. 1820 US census, Clinton County, New York, population schedule, Champlain Township, Frederick Fitch household, page 3, digital image, Ancestry (http://www.ancestry.com: accessed 2025); citing National Archives Microfilm Publication M33, Roll 66.
  7. Clinton County NYGenWeb, “The 1810 Census for Clinton County, New York,” accessed November 16, 2025, https://clinton.nygenweb.net/1810.htm. U.S. Census Office, Census for 1820 (Washington, DC: U.S. Census Office, 1821), 22, table of aggregates for New York State, Town of Champlain; https://www.census.gov/library/publications/1821/dec/1820a.html.
  8. 1820 US census, Clinton County, New York, population schedule, Champlain Township, Frederick Fitch household, page 3, digital image, Ancestry (http://www.ancestry.com: accessed 2025); citing National Archives Microfilm Publication M33, Roll 66.
  9. 1830 US census, Clinton County, New York, population schedule, Champlain Township, Frederick Fitch household, page 5, digital image, Ancestry (http://www.ancestry.com: accessed 2025); citing National Archives Microfilm Publication M19, Roll 85. 1840 US census, Clinton County, New York, population schedule, Champlain Township, Frederick Fitch household, page 15, digital image, Ancestry (http://www.ancestry.com: accessed 2025); citing National Archives Microfilm Publication Roll 276.
  10. See Christopher Clark, The Roots of Rural Capitalism: Western Massachusetts, 1780–1860 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1990) for an overview of the broader social, economical, and ideological changes seen in a rural community from 1790-1860.
  11. 1850 US census, Clinton County, New York, population schedule, Champlain Township, Frederick Fitch household, dwelling 2879 family 3105, digital image, Ancestry (http://www.ancestry.com: accessed 2025); citing National Archives Microfilm Publication, Roll 490, Page: 454a.
  12. 1850 U.S. Census, Agricultural Schedule, Town of Champlain, Clinton County, New York, Frederick Fitch farm, page 2, line 35, digital image, Ancestry (http://www.ancestry.com: accessed 2025).
  13. Ibid.
  14. Ibid.
  15. Doherty, Lawrence. “General History of the O. & L. C. Railroad.” The Railway and Locomotive Historical Society Bulletin, no. 58A (1942): 91–98. http://www.jstor.org/stable/43504337.
  16. For more information on how Midwestern grain and the introduction of railroads forced changes to eastern agriculture, see William Cronon, Nature’s Metropolis: Chicago and the Great West (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1991).
  17. 1860 U.S. Census, Agricultural Schedule, Town of Champlain, Clinton County, New York, Frederick Fitch farm, page 6, line 2, digital image, Ancestry (http://www.ancestry.com: accessed 2025).
  18. Ibid.
  19. Ibid.
  20.  1860 US census, Clinton County, New York, population schedule, Champlain Township, Frederick Fitch household, dwelling 630 family 653, digital image, Ancestry (http://www.ancestry.com: accessed 2025); citing National Archives Microfilm Publication, Roll 653_736, Page: 657.

Karl’s Tale

~ Darren Phaneuf ~ 2 Comments

The grave of Karl Rossi in Schenectady, NY

Source: Find a Grave

Karl Rossi’s granite gravestone lies quietly among those of his family in Vale Cemetery in Schenectady, NY.1 Its inscription lists only his birth and death dates—a modest marker for a life that carried him across an ocean into a land that was often unwelcoming to newcomers. His life captures the story of countless German immigrants who sought belonging in an America that both needed and distrusted them.

Karl’s story begins in Heiligenstadt, Germany when he was born on December 5th, 1877, to parents Georg and Kathrina. Nestled in Thuringia, a region transforming rapidly in the late nineteenth century from a medieval market town to a modern municipality, Heiligenstadt offered opportunity to some but hardship to many. Karl lost his father at nine and his mother twelve years later, leaving him without parental support in a society where wages stagnated and prospects for advancement were narrowing for working-class men amid the disruptions of industrialization.

Seeking stability and opportunity, Karl joined the thousands of Europeans sailing for America. He arrived in New York Harbor aboard the Carpathia on August 27th, 19032—a vessel that, less than a decade later, would become famous for rescuing survivors of the Titanic. Like many Germans, he likely traveled by rail from Thuringia to a North Sea port and then by ferry to Liverpool, the principal hub for transatlantic crossings. His journey placed him among the vast tide of migrants who reshaped American cities in the early twentieth century, leaving behind rural uncertainty for the industrial promise of steady wages and self-made futures.

Three brothers: Henry, Phillip, and Karl Rossi

Source: author’s personal collection

By 1909, Karl had begun to carve out his new beginning, boarding at 609 Cutler Avenue in Schenectady, NY, and working as a toolmaker.3 The city was dominated by General Electric and the American Locomotive Company, both major employers of immigrant labor. Boardinghouses proliferated, offering cheap but crowded accommodations, and German newcomers clustered in certain wards, preserving their language and customs while adapting to American life.4 Karl’s days would have been long and his wages modest, but the hum of German, Italian, and Slavic voices that filled his neighborhood reflected the cosmopolitan rhythm of a city built by migrants.

By 1910, Schenectady’s German community was well established, even as new waves of Italians and Eastern Europeans arrived. Lutheran and Catholic parishes anchored neighborhoods, while Vereine—mutual aid societies—offered fellowship, hosted dances, and provided a safety net for members in need. German-language papers such as Das Deutsche Journal and the Schenectady Herold sustained a shared sense of identity.5 For Karl, these institutions offered comfort and connection, linking the world he had left behind to the one he was building anew.

Karl’s 1915 naturalization certificate

Source: author’s personal collection

The shifting nature of life in Schenectady saw Karl living at 1042 Delamont Avenue by 1910. Three years later he was boarding at 821 Hamilton Street. By 1915, he had moved again and was boarding with Margaret Weast and her two daughters at 104 Front Street.6 In the midst of these changes, Karl became secretary and treasurer of S.R. Manufacturing Company, and on September 20th, 1915, took a defining step in his new life when he became a naturalized citizen of the United States.7

Not long after Karl became a citizen, the United States entered The Great War—now fighting against his native Germany. The conflict placed German Americans like Karl in a difficult position. Across the nation, the government’s Committee on Public Information (CPI) fueled anti-German sentiment, casting suspicion on immigrants who were often derided as “Huns” or “spies.” The ensuing campaign for “100 percent Americanism” led to the suppression of German culture: newspapers were closed, schools dropped German from their curricula, and entire communities saw their heritage erased.8 In some towns, German books were burned and street names changed.9 Even prominent figures were not immune—General Electric’s chief consulting engineer, Charles Proteus Steinmetz, himself German-born, was viewed warily for his heritage and political views.10 Such pressures hastened the decline of public German identity, eroding a cultural fabric that had once defined cities like Schenectady. For Karl, still without family or property, the war years must have felt especially precarious. 

The S.R. Manufacturing Company offers a glimpse into Karl’s life during Schenectady’s industrial golden age. Operating out of 56 Weaver Street, the firm was a diversified small-scale manufacturer—typical of the city’s entrepreneurial spirit—producing everything from marine engines to everyday goods like clothes-line pulleys. Its flagship product, the “Mohawk” Marine Motor, named for the nearby river, catered to both canal commerce and the region’s growing demand for recreational engines.11 This adaptability enabled S.R. Manufacturing to thrive in the shadow of industrial giants such as GE and ALCO, serving as a modest yet vital part of the city’s manufacturing ecosystem.

First page of the original letter from Karl to Elsa

Source: author’s personal collection

The 1920 census found forty-one-year-old Karl still living with Margaret Weast and her family while continuing to build the business.12 His purchase of a brick home at 34 North Ferry in Schenectady suggests the business was thriving. While living there, a chance encounter with Elsa Peper, the daughter of a Schenectady family of German descent, would change Karl’s life. The beginning of their courtship survives in a letter he wrote to her:

Dear Miss Elsa,
You surely will wonder, what brought you these few lines, but somehow your sheerfullness [sic], whenever I had the pleasure of seeing and speaking to you, which has given me the courage of writing to you. 

For years I have carried great Respect for you.

Next Thursday in the Albany Armory (Albany) Mr. McCormack will give a concert. Would you be so kind of giving me the pleasure of your company. 

I am not sure, if you remember my name, but the other day during your Vacation, when you were waiting in Weaver Street for your folks to take home I had a few pleasant words with you so you might know, who is writing these few lines.

A few lines will bring great happiness or should you decide otherwise. Fate must so willed it. Believe me yours sincerely,
Karl Rossi, 34 North Ferry Street13

The letter reflects the conventions of early twentieth-century courtship. At a time when propriety and parental approval carried great weight, written correspondence offered a socially acceptable—and often preferred—means of expressing interest. Historians note that “correspondence courtship” allowed men to express their intentions respectfully while giving women the opportunity to respond privately and with dignity.14 One contemporary guide reminded parents that “Our daughters and our sons are our most precious possessions, are treasures far outweighing gold and gems, and we cannot too closely guard them from mistakes at the outset of their lives.”15 Karl’s tone—measured, cheerful, and deferential—echoed these expectations and conveyed genuine respect. His invitation to a John McCormack concert at the Albany Armory was equally significant: McCormack, the celebrated Irish tenor, drew large immigrant audiences who found in his performances a blend of refinement and sentiment that bridged the distance to the Old World.16

Wedding photo of Karl and Elsa

Source: author’s personal collection

Although little evidence survives of Karl’s courtship with Elsa beyond the initial letter, the relationship clearly flourished: the two were married on June 25, 1924. A wedding announcement in the local paper described the details of their union:

“Elsa S. Peper, daughter of Mr. and Mrs. Fred W. Peper of 612 Crane Street, and Karl M. Rossi of 34 North Ferry Street, were married last Wednesday by Rev. Karl Schloede. The bride was attended by Florence Peper and the best man was Alfred Peper. She wore white crepe romaine and shadow lace and carried a shower bouquet of white roses and lilies of the valley. Her attendant wore light blue crepe de chine and carried butterfly roses. Following the ceremony a reception was held at the bride’s home for the immediate members of the family. After a wedding trip south, Mr. and Mrs. Rossi will be at home after July 6.”17

Such announcements were typical of the period. In many immigrant communities, weddings served not only as private milestones but also as public affirmations of heritage and belonging.

Karl and Elsa’s family grew quickly after their marriage. Their first child, Karl Jr., was born in August 1925, followed by daughter Elsa in July 1927 and, later, a son named Alfred in honor of Elsa’s brother. To accommodate their growing household, the Rossis moved to 954 St. David’s Lane in nearby Niskayuna, a home valued at $15,000 by 1930, a sign of their rising prosperity.18

The 1930s brought both hardship and endurance for the Rossi family. In 1930, their son Alfred died, and in 1939 they lost another young child, Philip.19 Although infant and child mortality had declined by this time, it still cast a long shadow over American families. For Karl and Elsa, these losses must have been devastating, yet they also reinforced the centrality of family bonds. Many immigrant families responded to such grief by drawing closer together, finding strength in shared hardship.20 Economic uncertainty compounded their struggles: the 1929 stock market crash ushered in the Great Depression, shuttering factories, slashing shifts, and sending unemployment soaring across Schenectady. Small manufacturers like S.R. Manufacturing suffered as customers delayed purchases or defaulted on credit. Yet not all was sorrow—amid the turmoil, the Rossis welcomed a daughter, Joyce, in 1932.21

Karl’s experience in the 1930s was shaped not only by family but also by the institutions that anchored Schenectady’s immigrant life. German churches offered spiritual solace and reinforced social networks, while mutual aid societies provided health insurance, funeral benefits, and small business loans. Such associations formed vital safety nets during the Depression, embodying the ethic of Familie writ large—community as extended kin. Through participation in these institutions, Karl deepened his ties to both German and American society.

Rossi family circa 1940: Karl Jr and Karl Sr. in the back; Joyce, Elsa, and Elsa in the front

Source: author’s personal collection

By 1940, the Rossi family still lived on St. David’s Lane in Niskayuna. Owning their home suggested that they had weathered the Depression with some stability, yet the census reveals another story: the house’s value had fallen to $5,000, and Karl was working sixty hours a week—among the longest schedules of any neighbor.22  His determination hints at the ongoing effort required to sustain his business through the lingering effects of the Depression.

Even as Karl built a life in America, his ties to Germany endured in the years after World War II. In the immediate postwar period, when food, clothing, and tools were scarce, German Americans often sent care packages—flour, soap, fabric, small tools—to relatives struggling in the ruins of Europe. Historians have shown that this practice was widespread, an expression of enduring family obligation as German Americans wrestled with the belief that Germans, too, had been among Hitler’s victims. Like many immigrants, Karl and Elsa bore both the emotional and financial burden of aiding kin overseas. A letter received from Berlin in March 1949 attests to the impact of their generosity:

Berlin, 20.3.1949
 Very honored Mr. Rossi!
 I want to hurry and let you know that your food package from 4.12.48 and the clothing package from 17.1.49 arrived here yesterday and today.
 I don’t know what words to find in my joy to thank you for your love and attention. The happiness that you once again brought to my home through your gifts is indescribable. All day long there is only one topic and that is: The great admiration for your mercy and the great understanding for our current plight. We are aware that you have an open heart and a strong feeling for your fellow human beings.

The Berlin letter underscores the enduring significance of transatlantic family ties in immigrant life. For German Americans, assisting kin in postwar Germany was both a moral obligation and a reaffirmation of identity and belonging across borders. Karl’s generosity—shaped by his own experiences of hardship and perseverance—reveals how family remained the foundation of his life’s story.

As Karl continued sending aid to family in Germany, he was quietly battling illness. He died at home in Niskayuna on June 3, 1949. Four days later, The New York Times published a brief obituary: “Karl Martin Rossi, partner of the S.R. Manufacturing Company here, died last night at his home after a two-year illness. He had been in the hardware manufacturing business for the last thirty-nine years.”23 By then, Karl had completed the full arc of the immigrant experience—from an orphaned youth in Thuringia to a respected husband, father, and business owner. His journey—marked by perseverance through war, prejudice, and depression—embodies the resilience of countless immigrants who built America’s industrial age not as magnates, but as steadfast craftsmen, neighbors, and parents devoted to family and humanity across borders.

Endnotes

  1. “Karl Rossi (1879–1949),” Memorial [231441874], Find a Grave, Accessed 10/10/2025, https://www.findagrave.com/memorial/231441874/karl_martin-rossi.
  2. The National Archives in Washington, DC; Washington, DC, USA; Passenger and Crew Lists of Vessels Arriving at New York, New York, 1897-1957; Microfilm Serial or NAID: T715; RG Title: Records of the Immigration and Naturalization Service, 1787-2004; RG: 85.
  3. Schenectady City Directory, 1909, Page 311, entry for Karl Rossi; digitized in U.S. City Directories, 1822–1995, database with images, Ancestry.com (http://www.ancestry.com : accessed 10/10/2025).
  4. Schenectady’s Immigrant Communities in the Late 19th and Early 20th Century, Schenectady County Historical Society Newsletter (Schenectady, NY: Schenectady County Historical Society, 2024), 13.
  5. Ibid.
  6. 1910 U.S. Census, Schenectady County, New York, population schedule, Schenectady Ward 7, Enumeration District (ED) 198, sheet 11B/12A, dwelling 272, Dorothy Van Debburg household; digital image, Ancestry (http://www.ancestry.com: accessed 10/10/2025); citing National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) microfilm: 1375091. Schenectady City Directory, 1911, Page 488, entry for Karl Rossi; digitized in U.S. City Directories, 1822–1995, database with images, Ancestry.com (http://www.ancestry.com : accessed 10/14/2025). Schenectady City Directory, 1915, Page 451, entry for Karl Rossi; digitized in U.S. City Directories, 1822–1995, database with images, Ancestry.com (http://www.ancestry.com : accessed 10/14/2025).  
  7. Certificate of Naturalization of Karl Rossi, Petition Volume 9, No. 1515, issued by the Supreme Court of New York, September 20, 1915, copy in the possession of the author.
  8. Mary J. Manning, “Being German, Being American: In World War I, They Faced Suspicion, Discrimination Here at Home,” Prologue 46, no. 2 (Summer 2014): 10. https://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/2014/summer/being-german-being-american
  9. Library of Congress, “Shadows of War: German Americans during World War I,” accessed September 20, 2025, https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/immigration/german/shadows-of-war/.
  10. George Wise, “Proteus and the Great War,” Schenectady County Historical Society Newsletter 61, nos. 4-6 (April-June 2017): 6.
  11. Schenectady City Directory, 1919, Page 796, advertisement for “The S-R Manufacturing Company); digitized in U.S. City Directories, 1822–1995, database with images, Ancestry.com (http://www.ancestry.com: accessed 10/14/2025). Schenectady City Directory, 1927, Page 761, advertisement for “The S.R. Manufacturing Co); digitized in U.S. City Directories, 1822–1995, database with images, Ancestry.com (http://www.ancestry.com: accessed 10/14/2025).
  12. 1920 U.S. Census, Schenectady County, New York, population schedule, Schenectady Ward 1, Enumeration District (ED) 127, sheet 3A, dwelling 23, family 23, Margaret Weast household; digital image, Ancestry (http://www.ancestry.com: accessed 10/11/2025); citing National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) microfilm publication T625, roll 1262.
  13. Karl Rossi to Elsa Peper, circa 1922, copy in the possession of the author.
  14. Karen Lystra, Searching the Heart: Women, Men, and Romantic Love in Nineteenth-Century America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989), 158–62.
  15. Margaret Elizabeth Munson Sangster, Good manners for all occasions, including etiquette of cards, wedding announcements and invitations (New York: Cupples & Leon company, 1919), 78, https://archive.org/details/cu31924014059103.
  16. Scott Spencer, “Wheels of the World: How Recordings of Irish Traditional Music Bridged the Gap between Homeland and Diaspora,” Journal of the Society for American Music 4, no. 4 (November 2010): 437–449.
  17. Newspaper wedding announcement clipping for Elsa S. Peper and Karl M. Rossi, June 1924, copy in the possession of the author.
  18. 1930 U.S. Census, Schenectady County, New York, population schedule, Niskayuna Township, Enumeration District (ED) 47-9, sheet 38A, dwelling 993, family 1030, Karl Rossi household; digital image, Ancestry (http://www.ancestry.com: accessed 10/14/2025); citing National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) microfilm publication, roll 2341378.
  19. “Alfred Rossi (?–1930),” Find a Grave Memorial ID 167504772, accessed 10/15/2025, https://www.findagrave.com/memorial/167504772/alfred-rossi. “Phillip Rossi (?–1939),” Find a Grave Memorial ID 167504771, accessed 10/15/2025, https://www.findagrave.com/memorial/167504771/philip-rossi.
  20. Kathleen Neils Conzen, “Ethnicity as Festive Culture: Nineteenth-Century German America on Parade,” in The Invention of Ethnicity, ed. Werner Sollors (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989), 47–76.
  21. 1940 US census, Schenectady County, New York, population schedule, Niskayuna Township, page 11B, family 38, Karl Rossi household; digital image, Ancestry (http://www.ancestry.com: accessed 2025); citing Roll: m-t0627-02774.
  22. Ibid.
  23. Maximilian Klose, “Molding Heritage Through Humanitarian Aid: German-Americans, Nazism, and Debates on Postwar German Suffering and Guilt,” Journal of Contemporary History 59, no. 3 (2024).
  24. Letter to Karl Rossi, March 20, 1949, copy in the possession of the author.
  25. “Karl M. Rossi,” New York Times, June 7, 1949, sec. Archives, https://www.nytimes.com/1949/06/07/archives/karl-m-rossi.html.

Salome’s Tale

~ Darren Phaneuf ~ 1 Comment

The grave of Salome Carto in Perry’s Mills, NY

Source: author’s personal collection

A weathered tombstone in a small cemetery in Perry’s Mills, New York, marks the final resting place of Salome Carto. To a passerby, it may seem like any other headstone in a small cemetery. Yet beneath it lies the story of a woman who weathered the hardships and turbulence of her century with extraordinary resilience.

Born Marie Salomée Boire on April 24, 1823, in Saint-Philippe, Quebec, Salome faced challenges at a young age. When she was only eleven, her father died, a tragedy that forced her widowed mother to hold together a household in an era when death often came early. By her teenage years, Salome had crossed the border into northern New York with her family, joining thousands of French Canadian migrants who would eventually seek farmland and opportunity just south of the border while still remaining close to their kin.1

The first appearance of James and Salome’s family in the federal census in 1850.

Source: 1850 US census, Clinton County, New York, population schedule, Champlain Township.

At twenty, Salome married James Carto, a Canadian-born farmer, and settled in Perry’s Mills, a hamlet of Champlain where stony fields and small barns defined daily life. When the census taker called in 1850, the Cartos lived on a farm valued at $400 and had four children under the age of six: Mathilda (age 6), Manny (age 5), Elisha (age 3), and Alex (age 1).2 The family would expand with the arrival of daughter Amelia in 1851 and daughter Cornelia in 1857. Salome’s life as a mother of seven young children living on a rural farm would have been defined by arduous and constant cycles of domestic labor and emotional strain. Nineteenth century households were complex economic units, and as its manager, Salome was responsible for a myriad of tasks critical to the family’s survival, including food preservation, textile production, and childcare, all performed without modern conveniences. This demanding workload of farm life was always precarious. A sick cow, a bad harvest, or the loss of a child could throw the household into crisis. And for Salome, loss was never far away. Of her seven children, two—Manny (in 1851) and Cornelia (in 1861)—died before they reached school age. The empty chairs at the family table told a story repeated in countless rural homes, where two in five children never survived to see adulthood.3 

The Carto farm remained modest in 1860—just sixteen acres of worked land, at a slightly improved value of $500, a fraction of what most neighbors reported.4 The Cartos owned a handful of livestock—three horses, a cow, nine sheep—and relied on every member of the family to keep the place running. Children were not simply raised; they were put to work. Historian Steven Hahn has written that northern farm families leaned on “the labor of sons and daughters to maintain productivity, diversify tasks, and ensure continuity across the seasons.”5 For the Cartos, that meant sons planting oats and potatoes, daughters churning butter and tending animals, and Salome overseeing it all.6

The start of the Civil War added yet another burden to this fragile existence lived by the Cartos. Christmas 1863 saw Eli, Salome’s oldest but barely sixteen-year-old son, enlist in the Union Army after the conclusion of harvest. He went with his uncle Eleazor, perhaps emboldened by the tales of another uncle, Jerome, who had returned from Antietam maimed but alive. The young men joined the 16th New York Cavalry, a regiment sent not to the great battlefields, but to the thorny guerrilla war in northern Virginia. Their task was to track down Confederate ranger John Mosby, whose men seemed to strike from the shadows. As the commander of the 16th New York Cavalry noted about one engagement, “Small parties were seen about Leesburg, but would scatter to the woods when pursued.”7 For Salome, days stretched into months of worry. Then, in March 1865—just weeks before Appomattox—Eli was killed in Virginia in a small skirmish that is barely a footnote in the War of the Rebellion official records. His body never came home.8 The war ended soon after, but victory brought no comfort to a mother who had lost her eldest son. His absence was more than emotional: it left one less pair of hands to keep the Carto farm alive.

The Carto family had expanded by 1870 include the mothers of both James and Salome

Source: 1870 US census, Clinton County, New York, population schedule, Champlain Township.

Despite this devastating loss, the Carto family demonstrated remarkable resilience and an ability to adapt during the post-war period. The 1870 census reveals significant changes in the Carto farm. James, now with the help of his surviving son Alex, had doubled their improved land to 40 acres and increased the total value of the farm from $500 to $2,600. Their livestock holdings grew to 3 horses, 2 cows, 1 other cattle, 2 sheep, and 8 swine, with a total livestock value of $250. This expansion allowed them to increase their production of wheat, corn, oats, and potatoes as well. Most notably, their yearly butter production soared from 40 pounds in 1860 to 160 pounds by 1870, a significant increase that highlights the family’s intensified focus on dairy, while also producing 25 pounds of maple sugar and 125 pounds of honey to diversify their income sources.9 This pivot required more work for everyone, especially Salome and her daughters. 

The 1870s introduced another dynamic for the Cartos: providing for James’s mother, Margaret, and Salome’s mother, Rose. In the nineteenth-century United States, it was common for households to expand in this way, as families were the primary source of care and support for aging relatives.10 While this arrangement reflected prevailing cultural expectations, it also added new burdens to the household, complicating Salome’s already demanding work of coordinating care, labor, and resources within the family.

The 1870s brought other changes for Salome and her family. Male members of the Carto household increasingly pursued employment outside the home. James, remembered locally as “our old stand-by bridge fixer,” was repeatedly compensated for his work maintaining bridges in Perry’s Mills.11 Meanwhile, Alex earned wages as town constable.12 While this work undoubtedly helped the Carto family expand the wealth of their household, it also likely meant that Salome’s role as supervisor of the household economy became more critical. The decade further marked the first recorded instance of the Cartos subscribing to a local newspaper.13 This development is particularly striking given that both James and Salome consistently reported on federal censuses that they could neither read nor write. Although the precise reason for their subscription remains unknown, it may reflect several possible motivations: a desire for access to information beyond their immediate community, an interest in political affairs, or an intention to provide reading material for their children.

The 1880 agricultural census reveals the complexity of the farm that Salome would soon run on her own.

Source: 1880 U.S. Census, Agricultural Schedule, Town of Champlain, Clinton County, New York.

By 1880, the Carto farm had undergone yet another decade of expansion and transformation. The acreage of improved land rose to 60 acres, and the total value of the farm nearly doubled again to $5,000, with additional investments in machinery and livestock. Their herds grew to include four milk cows and a larger number of young cattle, reflecting a stronger emphasis on dairying; over 900 gallons of milk were sold to factories in 1879, signaling a shift from small-scale butter making toward commercial milk production. Grain cultivation diversified to include barley and buckwheat alongside oats, wheat, and corn, while hay fields and seed production demonstrated careful management of the farm’s grasslands. Potatoes and apples were raised for both subsistence and market sale, and poultry flocks provided a steady supply of eggs. The insight from 1880 portrays a farm that had not only stabilized but grown more prosperous, combining traditional mixed farming with a new commercial orientation in dairy and diversified crops. The most telling sign from the census was that the family reported hiring farm labor in 1879.14

Circumstances changed markedly for Salome during the 1880s, severely testing her resilience. In 1880, James died, leaving her a widow at fifty-seven. Her son Alex temporarily assumed management of the farm, but he succumbed to tuberculosis in November 1881. The burden deepened when Alex’s young wife, Virginia, died of the same disease in June 1882. Tuberculosis, which haunted so many rural households in the nineteenth century, left two little girls—Clarissa (b. 1878) and Cornelia (b. 1880)—without parents. At an age when many women might have expected to lean on grown children, as James and Salome had once provided for their own elderly mothers, Salome instead became the sole head of a household with two children under four where the weight of survival fell squarely on her shoulders. She rose each morning not only to tend her few acres but to guide two young girls through a childhood shaped by absence. In the post war period, widows and older women often assumed new responsibilities as heads of households, bridging the needs of younger generations while sustaining the economic life of the family.15 Salome’s experience echoed this wider pattern, turning her home into a place where caregiving and subsistence labor merged in the wake of loss.

The absence of census records for 1890 obscures a full picture of Salome’s final years. Nonetheless, scattered documentary evidence offers glimpses into the life she sought to provide for her granddaughters. A pivotal development came with the passage of the Dependent and Disability Pension Act of 1890, which extended benefits to mothers of fallen soldiers. In June 1894, Salome successfully applied for and received a modest pension based on Eli’s service.16 While the amount was limited, it carried a deeper significance: formal recognition that her son’s sacrifice—and, by extension, her own—was valued by the nation. Around this time, newspapers reported that Clara enrolled at the Plattsburgh Normal School.17 This fact further supports the notion that Salome valued education and sought to open educational opportunities for her granddaughters.

Salome’s granddaughter Clara Carto circa 1898

Source: Provided to author by family member.

By the turn of the century, Salome’s granddaughters had grown into young women. Clara became a teacher, one of the few professional paths open to women at the time, while Cornelia remained at home. Salome reported in 1900 that she had given birth to seven children, but only two remain alive.18 This final disclosure underscores the profound experiences of loss that marked her life, including the death of at least one child absent from surviving historical records.

Salome’s final appearance in the historical record came in March 1903, when her granddaughter Cornelia married Richard Upton in Perry’s Mills. A local newspaper noted that “The service was performed by Rev. H. C. Petty, and was witnessed by only the immediate relatives of the contracting parties.”19 Less than two months later, on May 16, Salome passed away, having lived long enough to see her granddaughter wed. She was laid to rest in Perry’s Mills, the village where her life had unfolded amid decades of hardship and endurance. 

Salome life, though largely absent from public records of distinction, reflects the quiet endurance of many nineteenth-century rural women whose labor, resilience, and grief were borne largely within the domestic sphere. Salome’s persistence amid repeated loss, her role in sustaining her household, and her care for successive generations position her story as part of the broader narrative of women’s indispensable yet often unacknowledged contributions to family and community life.

  1. 1900 US census, Clinton County, New York, population schedule, Champlain Township, page 25, family 362, Salame Carto household; digital image, Ancestry (http://www.ancestry.com: accessed 2025); citing FHL microfilm: 1241018. ↩︎
  2. 1850 US census, Clinton County, New York, population schedule, Champlain Township, dwelling 3096 family 3330, James Carto household; digital image, Ancestry (http://www.ancestry.com: accessed 2025); citing National Archives Microfilm Publication M432, 1009 rolls. ↩︎
  3. Michael R. Haines, Estimated Life Tables for the United States, 1850-1900 (September 1994). NBER Working Paper No. h0059, Available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=190396 ↩︎
  4. 1860 U.S. Census, Agricultural Schedule, Town of Champlain, Clinton County, New York, Page: 7; Line: 32, Ancestry (http://www.ancestry.com: accessed 2025). ↩︎
  5. Steven Hahn, The Roots of Southern Populism: Yeoman Farmers and the Transformation of the Georgia Upcountry, 1850–1890 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1983), 23–26. ↩︎
  6. For information regarding the shifting family dynamic from a patriarchal system to one where women, as mothers, were increasingly responsible for the moral and emotional development of their children, see Mary P. Ryan, Cradle of the Middle Class: The Family in Oneida County, New York, 1790-1865. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981. ↩︎
  7. Nelson B. Sweitzer, report of March 14, 1865, in The War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies, ser. 1, vol. 46, pt. 1 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1894), 552. ↩︎
  8. New York State Archives, Cultural Education Center, Albany, New York; New York Civil War Muster Roll Abstracts, 1861-1900; Archive Collection #: 13775-83; Box #: 891; Roll #: 547, Ancestry (http://www.ancestry.com: accessed 2025). ↩︎
  9. 1870 U.S. Census, Agricultural Schedule, Town of Champlain, Clinton County, New York, Page: 6; Line: 31, Ancestry (http://www.ancestry.com: accessed 2025). ↩︎
  10. See Steven Ruggles, Prolonged Connections: The Rise of the Extended Family in Nineteenth-Century England and America (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1987) for more information on the role of families in caring for aging relatives. ↩︎
  11. The Plattsburgh Sentinel, “Perry’s Mills,” December 24, 1875, 3. Plattsburgh Republican, “Proceedings of the Board of Supervisors – 1878,” February 1, 1879, 4. Plattsburgh Republican, “Town Accounts,” January 17, 1880, 4. ↩︎
  12. Plattsburgh Republican, “Town Accounts,” December 27, 1873, 2. ↩︎
  13. The Plattsburgh Sentinel, “Receipts for the Plattsburgh Sentinel,” December 15, 1876, 3. ↩︎
  14. 1880 U.S. Census, Agricultural Schedule, Town of Champlain, Clinton County, New York. p. 19, record 8, Ancestry (http://www.ancestry.com: accessed 2025). ↩︎
  15. For more information on the transitions women made in the post-war period, see Tamara K. Hareven, Family Time and Industrial Time: The Relationship between the Family and Work in a New England Industrial Community (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1982). ↩︎
  16. U.S. Pension Application for Eli Carto, mother Salome Carto, filed June 6, 1894, Application No. 596623, Certificate No. 726671, New York; U.S., Civil War Pension Index: General Index to Pension Files, 1861–1934; Records of the Department of Veterans Affairs, 1773–2007, Record Group 15; National Archives, Washington, D.C., Ancestry (http://www.ancestry.com: accessed 2025). ↩︎
  17. Plattsburgh Daily Press, “Perrys Mills,” September 23, 1897, 4. The Plattsburgh Sentinel, “Perry’s Mills,” December 3, 1897, 8. Cardinal Points, “Agenda Items,” January 1, 1898, 1. ↩︎
  18. 1900 US census, Clinton County, New York, population schedule, Champlain Township, page 25, family 362, Salame Carto household; digital image, Ancestry (http://www.ancestry.com: accessed 2025); citing FHL microfilm: 1241018. ↩︎
  19. Plattsburgh Republican, “Wedding at Perrys Mills,” March 21, 1903, 1. ↩︎

Oscar’s Tale

~ Darren Phaneuf ~ 1 Comment

Oscar Wilson’s life is known to few people alive today. His grave sits in a small cemetery alongside a rural road that cuts through farm fields in a southern section of Champlain, NY. He shares his gravestone with his parents and three brothers in the back corner of the cemetery. Were it not for that grave, his life would largely be lost to time. With that grave as a starting point, however, we can use Oscar’s life as a way to shed light on the harsh reality of life for children in the 19th century.

Oscar was born in 1845 to parents Leander and Betsy Wilson. His parents wed in 1839 and immediately began to expand their family with the births of Mariah, Alonzo, Mary, Louisa, and George before Oscar joined the family in 1845.1

The location along the Ridge Road in Champlain, NY where the Wilson farm once stood.

Source: author’s personal collection

Oscar’s early life would have revolved around the rhythm of farming. The Wilson family operated one of the smallest farms in Champlain. At only six acres, their farm was the third smallest of the 220 farms located in the town of Champlain in 1850. Their farm was so small that it was entirely missed when OJ Lamb prepared a map of the town in 1856.2 Despite its diminutive size, the Wilson farm was still a complex operation. The 1850 agricultural census reports that the family had two horses, a milk cow, two heads of cattle, five sheep, and one pig. The family also produced 50 bushels of both corn and potatoes, eight pounds of wool, 75 pounds of butter, and five tons of hay. The family also sold slaughtered livestock, market gardens, and homemade goods worth $31.3 While Oscar was too young to have worked on the farm, his siblings were undoubtedly important contributors to the farm economy. Historian Steven Mintz notes that in antebellum rural families, “children were seen as economic assets” and often assumed labor responsibilities from the age of five or six.4 The Wilson family farm was both a workplace and a home, where intergenerational cooperation helped rural families survive amid uncertain economic conditions. The presence of Oscar’s grandmother Rachel in the 1850 census underscores the extended family importance on rural farms.5

Line 11 of the mortality schedule represents the only appearance of Oscar Wilson on a historical record.

Source: U.S. Census Mortality Schedules, New York, 1850-1880; New York State Education Department, Office of Cultural Education; Albany, New York; Year: 1850; Roll: M1; Line Number: 11. Ancestry (http://www.ancestry.com: accessed 2025).

The only appearance Oscar makes in the historical record is a single entry in the 1850 mortality schedule. We learn from that record that four-year-old Oscar died on June 6th, 1849 after a week-long bout with croup.6 While hardly known today, croup was a dreaded infection in the 19th century. The term “croup” was used broadly to describe a variety of respiratory conditions in children marked by a barking cough and labored breathing. Modern scholars recognize that 19th-century cases of fatal croup were often caused by diphtheria—a bacterial infection that obstructed the airway with a thick membrane, often leading to suffocation.7 Oscar’s rapid demise is tragically consistent with the severe and often untreatable nature of diphtheritic croup. Of the 52 people listed on the 1850 mortality schedule for Champlain, croup was the second most frequent cause of death at five cases (~10%). The only more frequent cause of death was consumption (tuberculosis) with six cases. The primary difference between the two inflictions is that consumption killed mostly adults in Champlain (only one person who died of consumption was under the age of twelve), while all of the lethal cases of croup targeted young children. Four-year-old Oscar was the oldest child to die of croup in Champlain’s 1850 mortality schedule.8

The Wilson family stone in Waters Cemetery, Champlain, NY

Source: author’s personal collection

When Oscar died in 1849, he represented the first death in the Wilson family and was one of the earliest burials in Waters Cemetery in southern Champlain near the border with the town of Chazy. He would be joined in the cemetery by infant brother Johnny in 1853 and older brothers Alonzo and George in the early 1860s. Parents like Leander and Betsy Wilson lived with this uncertainty as an unavoidable fact of life. In the absence of effective antibiotics, antitoxins, and vaccines, children were vulnerable to sudden and often unstoppable infections that meant roughly 40% of children in the United States died before the age of five, with infectious diseases such as diphtheria, scarlet fever, whooping cough, and tuberculosis accounting for the majority of deaths.9 Oscar’s grave, simple though it may be, is emblematic of an era in which early death was not a statistical abstraction but a lived and recurring trauma. His brief life, preserved only in stone and a single line on the mortality schedule, remains a powerful lens into the fragile world of childhood in 19th-century rural America.

Footnotes:

  1. 1850 US census, Clinton County, New York, population schedule, Champlain Township, dwelling 2567, family 2781, Leander Wilson household; digital image, Ancestry (http://www.ancestry.com: accessed 2025); citing National Archives Microfilm Publication M432, 1009 rolls.
  2. Ligowsky, A. Map of Clinton Co., New York. Philadelphia: O.J. Lamb, 1856. Map. https://www.loc.gov/item/2009583837/.
  3. 1850 US census, Clinton County, New York, US Selected Federal Census Non-Population Schedules, 1850-1880, Champlain Township, Archive Collection Number: A2; Roll: 2; Page: 803; Line: 14. Ancestry (http://www.ancestry.com: accessed 2025); citing National Archives Microfilm Publication.
  4. Mintz, Steven. Huck’s Raft: A History of American Childhood. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2004, p. 55.
  5. 1850 US census, Clinton County, New York, population schedule, Champlain Township, dwelling 2567, family 2781, Leander Wilson household; digital image, Ancestry (http://www.ancestry.com: accessed 2025); citing National Archives Microfilm Publication M432, 1009 rolls.
  6.  U.S. Census Mortality Schedules, New York, 1850-1880; New York State Education Department, Office of Cultural Education; Albany, New York; Year: 1850; Roll: M1; Line Number: 11. Ancestry (http://www.ancestry.com: accessed 2025).
  7. Humphreys, Margaret. “Childhood Disease and the Rise of Preventive Medicine.” The Journal of Pediatrics 126, no. 1 (1995): 135–141.
  8. U.S. Census Mortality Schedules, New York, 1850-1880; New York State Education Department, Office of Cultural Education; Albany, New York; Year: 1850; Roll: M1; Line Number: 11. Ancestry (http://www.ancestry.com: accessed 2025).
  9. Haines, Michael R., Estimated Life Tables for the United States, 1850-1900 (September 1994). NBER Working Paper No. h0059, Available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=190396